s 

531 

N71      Nolan 


The   teach,    of 
"agriculture.  ' 


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2      1933 


THE  TEACHING 
OF  AGRICULTURE 


BY 

ARETAS  W.  NOLAN 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agricultural  Extension,  University 

of  Illinois,  and  State  Supervisor  of 

Agricultural  Education 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 
EUGENE  DAVENPORT 

Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Director 

of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

University  of  Illinois 


BOSTON     NEW  YORK      CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

(Cfce  fiitoerjsiDc  prestf  Cambridge 


94784 


COPYRIGHT,   1918,  BY  ARKTAS  W.   NOLAN 
ALL  KIGHTS  RESERVED 


lEOr  »it)erfift)t  PrtSfi 

CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U.     S.  A 


s 

53  \ 

'I 


PREFACE 

ALL  well-established  subjects  of  instruction  in  the 
public  schools  are  more  or  less  standardized  and  uni- 
form throughout  the  country.  The  fields  of  science, 
mathematics,  English,  and  history  have  been  carefully 
outlined.  Instruction  in  vocational  subjects  is  not  so 
well  defined,  and  it  may  take  many  more  years  to 
determine  the  proper  subject-matter  and  methods  in 
order  to  secure  desired  vocational  results  from  such 
instruction. 

Agriculture  has  been  taught  in  the  public  schools  for 
a  sufficient  number  of  years  to  warrant  the  following 
conclusions :  — 

(a)  That  agriculture  as  a  subject  of  study  contrib- 
utes to  certain  great  values  and  controls  of  life; 
(6)  That  agriculture  applies  directly  to  concrete 
problems  of  everyday  life,  whose  solution  has 
educational  values;  and 

(c)  That  the  study  of  agriculture  liberalizes  the  ed- 
ucation of  the  student  as  well  as  trains  him  di- 
rectly in  the  vocation  of  farming,  resulting  in 
improved  farm  practice. 

Agriculture  is  one  of  the  major  vocations  and  basic 
industries.  There  is  a  fund  of  agricultural  knowledge 
which  has  grown  out  of  the  experience  of  farmers  and 


iv  PREFACE 

of  the  educational  work  of  the  land-grant  colleges  for 
the  past  fifty  years,  and  this  agricultural  knowledge 
has  been  and  can  be  taught.  Our  problem  is  to  or- 
ganize that  part  of  agricultural  science  and  practice 
which  is  teachable  in  the  public  schools,  and  to  estab- 
lish such  principles  and  methods  as  will  guide  in  the 
proper  teaching  of  the  subject.  Agriculture  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  should  have  a  decided  vocational  aim.  It 
should  give  the  student  a  degree  of  accurate  knowl- 
edge and  skill  and  familiarity  with  the  best  modern 
farm  practices.  Agricultural  education  should  guar- 
antee that  the  future  farmers  be  educated  country 
gentlemen  who  work  with  their  hands,  and  gather 
about  them  the  best  things  which  civilization  affords. 
Within  these  pages  are  recommendations  concern- 
ing the  aim,  the  scope  of  work,  the  principles,  materials, 
and  methods  to  be  used  in  teaching  agriculture  in  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  schools. 

ARETAS  W.  NOLAN. 

URBANA,  ILLINOIS, 
January,  1918. 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION.    By  Eugene  Davenport  .    vii 

I.  SOME  REASONS  FOB  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE      .      1 

II.  NATURE-STUDY  PRECEDING  AGRICULTURE     .      .    12 

HI.  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  AND  BOYS'  AND  GIRLS' 

CLUB  WORK 21 

IV.  HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE SI 

V.  SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES  IN  TEACHING 

AGRICULTURE 09 

VI.  THE  TEACHER  OF  AGRICULTURE       .     .      .      .  162 

VII.  TEACHING  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE    .      .     .  166 
APPENDIX 

Suggestions  for  a  farm,  home,  and  community 
survey 167 

Suggested  course  in  nature  study  —  first  six 
grades 179 

Suggested  course  in  elements  of  agriculture  — 
seventh  and  eighth  grades 204 

Suggestions  for  laboratory  equipment .      .      .  224 
Suggestions  for  agricultural  laboratory       .      .  227 

The  Smith-Hughes  Law  and  Vocational  Agri- 
culture in  secondary  schools 228 

BIBLIOGRAPHY i 

OUTLINE .      .      .     v 

INDEX 


INTRODUCTION 

THAT  the  teaching  of  agriculture  should  be  at- 
tempted at  all  was  until  recently  quite  commonly 
regarded  as  one  of  the  fads  that  would  speedily  perish 
in  the  wreckage  of  its  own  failures.  Instead,  it  has 
lived,  and  to-day  it  constitutes  a  basis  for  the  recasting 
of  many  of  our  convictions,  not  only  as  to  the  materials 
and  methods,  but  also  as  to  the  ideals  and  purposes,  of 
education. 

Whether  the  chief  purpose  in  any  individual  in- 
stance is  the  education  of  farmers,  or  whether  it  is  the 
utilization  of  the  materials  and  methods  of  farming  for 
the  purpose  of  a  general  education,  the  living  force,  if 
there  be  any,  in  agricultural  materials  lies  in  the  two 
facts:  first,  that  agriculture  is  a  part  of  nature;  and 
second,  that  by  these  agricultural  materials  we  make 
use  of  natural  facts  and  forces  for  the  definite  end  of 
sustaining  life. 

It  has  been  but  inevitable  that  some  mistakes 
should  be  made  in  our  earlier  attempts  to  teach  this 
complicated  and  difficult  subject.  We  have  often  been 
quite  uncertain  as  to  whether  we  were  teaching  a  sci- 
ence or  an  art,  or  whether  after  all  our  principal  pur- 
pose was  not,  perhaps  without  our  knowing  it,  to  edu- 
cate men.  If  the  former  were  our  purpose,  we  were 
very  strenuous  about  materials,  and  if  the  latter 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

assumed  greater  prominence  in  our  minds,  we  empha- 
sized methods. 

We  have  often  forgotten  that  even  in  so  far  as  agri- 
culture is  a  science,  it  is  not  an  exact  science  like  math- 
ematics. Much  bad  teaching  has  been  done,  no  doubt, 
simply  because  of  a  determination  to  compel  the  stu- 
dent to  get  his  lessons  and  to  maintain  grades  indica- 
tive of  a  creditable  academic  standard.  Have  these 
grades  or  credits  been  too  easily  earned?  Then  the 
course  has  been  stiffened  by  adding  a  mass  of  "  mem- 
ory work  "  not  very  different  in  purpose  or  character 
from  the  "  busy  work  "  of  the  lower  grades.  It  must  be 
definitely  understood  that  no  student  in  any  branch 
of  a  natural  science  will  ever  make  the  grades  that  are 
sometimes  found  in  mathematics,  for  example,  where 
a  mark  of  perfection  is  clearly  possible. 

But  academic  standing  is  not  the  true  measure  of 
success,  either  in  the  teaching  or  in  the  study  of  agri- 
culture. That  measure  is  found  in  the  performance  of 
those  who  actually  go  to  the  land,  live  there,  and  suc- 
ceed; for,  after  all,  the  fundamental  purpose  of  our 
great  system  of  agricultural  education  is  to  insure  a 
better  agriculture  and  to  make  a  country  life  as  nearly 
perfect  as  possible. 

The  object  of  agricultural  education  is  not  even  to 
arrest  the  tide  that  flows  cityward  and  turn  it  back  to 
the  land,  although  that  is  one  of  the  results;  but  the 
great  purpose  is  to  fit  for  country  life  those  who  have 
cast,  or  who  are  about  to  cast,  their  lots  with  the  farm, 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

emphasizing  the  fact  that  when  proper  attention  is 
bestowed  upon  this  great  calling,  it  will  find  of  itself  its 
proper  place  in  affairs  American,  and  that  that  place 
will  be  both  high  and  serviceable. 

Any  man  who  writes  a  good  book  upon  any  phase  of 
this  great  subject  of  agricultural  education  performs  a 
distinct  service  to  his  day  and  generation.  It  is  too 
much  to  expect  that  any  book  will  be  faultless,  espe- 
cially in  these  pioneer  stages  of  a  new  science,  but 
Professor  Nolan  has  labored  long  and  faithfully  to  put 
out  an  honest  piece  of  work.  I  am  sure  it  will  be  read 
with  both  pleasure  and  profit  by  his  many  friends 
and  the  many  seekers  after  truth  in  this  new  and  rich 
domain. 

EUGENE  DAVENPOBT. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 


SOME  REASONS  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

Aims  for  individual  students.  Since  agriculture  has 
been  admitted  as  a  subject  of  study  in  the  public 
schools,  we  are  asking  the  question,  What  shall  be  the 
aims  and  what  are  the  intrinsic  values  of  such  a  course 
of  instruction?  What  shall  be  the  aim  of  agricultural 
education  for  the  individual  student,  and  what  contri- 
butions should  such  education  make  to  a  democratic 
society?  We  hear  a  great  deal  about  pre- vocational 
agriculture,  non-technical  or  general  agriculture,  prac- 
tical or  vocational  agriculture,  but  there  seems  to  be  no 
clear-cut  line  of  division  between  these  so-called  fields 
of  agriculture.  There  may  be  a  justification  for  the 
terms  "  general  "  and  "  vocational  "  agriculture  when 
we  mean  to  include  in  the  former  all  such  general  and 
interesting  information  about  plants,  animals,  and 
other  materials  and  processes  of  agriculture  as  his- 
tories, values,  relationships,  and  principles  of  the  in- 
dustry and  business;  and  when  under  vocational  agri- 
culture we  mean  the  knowledge  and  skill  necessary 
for  successful  farming.  In  both  general  and  vocational 


2    THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

agriculture  there  must  be  educational  values  for  the 
individual,  such  as  all  science  is  able  to  give.  The 
specific  aims  of  vocational  agricultural  education  for 
the  individual  student  are,  (1)  to  give  the  pupil  who 
intends  to  become  a  farmer  preparation  for  wholesome 
and  successful  farming  and  country  life;  (2)  to  give 
the  skill  and  knowledge  necessary  to  the  control  of 
plant  and  animal  production,  to  the  end  of  economic 
profit;  and  (3)  to  articulate  such  education  with  other 
education  so  as  to  produce  an  educated  country  gen- 
tleman who  works  with  his  hands  and  gathers  about 
him  all  the  best  things  which  civilization  affords. 

Social  aims  in  view  of  modern  demands.  Any  sub- 
ject that  contributes  in  any  constructive  way  toward 
the  great  fundamental  needs,  values,  and  controls  of 
the  human  race  deserves  to  be  taught  to  the  people 
and  to  the  children  of  the  people.  Such  a  subject  ag- 
riculture has  come  to  be,  and  it  should  be  taught  in 
school  and  out  of  school,  in  season  and  out  of  season, 
to  the  hosts  who  are  coming  to.  learn. 

Sane  modern  demands  would  have  our  natural  re- 
sources conserved,  rural  life  vocations  made  more  effi- 
cient, the  health  of  the  country  folks  conserved  and 
improved,  a  greater  appreciation  of  all  art,  a  perma- 
nent and  persistent  moral  growth,  a  closer  and  more 
efficient  rural  organization,  and  a  more  liberal  educa- 
tion among  the  whole  rural  population. 

To  these  modern  demands  of  public-spirited  think- 
ers and  leaders,  agriculture,  in  its  threefold  aspects 


REASONS  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE  3 

—  as  an  industry,  a  business,  and  a  life,  —  comes  with 
large  contributions  to  meet  each  demand. 

Conservation  of  natural  resources.  It  is  perfectly 
clear  that  through  scientific  agriculture  most  of  our 
natural  resources  can  be  conserved.  To  improve  and 
make  permanent  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  to  maintain 
and  to  increase  crop  and  animal  production,  to  im- 
prove the  breeding  of  plants  and  animals,  to  combat 
and  control  insects  and  diseases  among  crops  and  ani- 
mals, to  conserve  and  plant  the  forests,  to  utilize 
wisely  the  mineral  resources,  —  these  are  all  questions 
of  scientific  and  technical  agriculture,  and  the  teach- 
ing of  agriculture  must  result  in  the  wise  use  and  con- 
servation of  these  natural  resources.  It  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  the  conservation  of  the  soil,  for  example,  on 
the  farm  of  Mr.  Brown,  for  his  own  good  alone;  it  is 
a  public  question,  and  concerns  the  public  welfare. 
Enough  surveys  have  been  made  to  show  that  we  are 
safe  in  generalizing  on  this  point,  —  that  our  natural 
resources  are  not  being  conserved  properly,  and  that 
scientific  agriculture  makes  for  conservation. 

Inefficiency  in  rural  vocations.  We  need  no  further 
proof  than  common  observation  and  government  sta- 
tistics to  generalize  again  and  say  that  rural  life  voca- 
tions are  not  as  efficient  as  they  should  be.  When  the 
corn  crop  averages  only  about  twenty-five  bushels 
per  acre,  and  the  wheat  crop  about  fifteen  bushels; 
when  the  annual  income  per  acre  averages  only  about 
twelve  dollars;  when  insects  destroy  our  crops  to  the 


4    THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

extent  of  millions  annually;  when  the  live-stock  pro- 
duction decreases  about  eight  per  cent  every  decade; 
when  farm  machinery  is  left  to  deteriorate  under  the 
open  sky;  when  roads  are  impassable  in  prosperous 
country  districts  for  several  months  each  year;  and 
when  there  occurs  great  rural  exodus  of  young  folks 
each  year,  —  there  must  be  some  inefficiency  some- 
where. The  fault  is  not  placed,  nor  the  whole  remedy 
suggested,  but  it  must  be  clear  that  scientific  agricul- 
ture will  give  greater  efficiency  to  these  vocational 
interests  and  contribute  much  to  their  improvement. 
Health  in  rural  life.  Surveys  by  several  state  boards 
of  health  in  various  sections  of  the  country  have  shown 
that  the  health  of  the  country  people  is  not  so  well 
conserved  or  looked  after  as  that  of  the  city  people. 
There  are  more  cases  of  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever, 
and  other  infectious  diseases  in  the  country  per  capita 
than  in  the  city.  With  the  fresh  air,  pure  water,  whole- 
some food,  etc.,  of  which  country  folks  boast,  this 
ought  not  to  be.  The  demand  is,  therefore,  made  upon 
educational  institutions,  subjects  of  study,  and  modes 
of  life  that  this  condition  be  improved.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  the  very  nature  of  the  farmer's  voca- 
tion, as  he  works  in  the  sunshine  and  air,  with  every 
opportunity  for  living  in  almost  perfect  obedience  to 
the  laws  of  life  making  for  health,  ought  to  be  a  fac- 
tor for  better  rural  health.  A  more  general  study  of 
scientific  agriculture  in  all  that  it  involves,  will  create 
a  better  attitude  toward  science,  will  give  more  defi- 


REASONS  FOB  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE  5 

nite  knowledge  as  to  the  better  ways  of  living,  and  will 
make  direct  contributions  toward  the  improvement 
of  sanitary  and  health  conditions  of  the  home  and 
community  life. 

A  greater  appreciation  of  art.  Rural  life  is  entitled 
to  the  two  great  sources  of  permanent  happiness,  the 
creation  and  appreciation  of  the  fine  arts.  To  be  able 
to  produce  and  to  appreciate  any  one  form  of  art,  will 
lead  to  a  greater  appreciation  of  all  other  aits,  and 
thus  open  an  avenue  to  larger  joys  in  living.  The 
new-old  art  of  landscape  gardening  has  in  it  all  the 
essentials  of  a  fine  art.  It  may  be  the  adequate  ex- 
pression of  a  genuine  emotion,  using  the  finest  mate- 
rials in  all  creation,  the  grass,  shrubs,  flowers,  and 
trees.  The  teaching  of  agriculture  brings  large  contri- 
butions to  this  fine  art.  It  should  result  in  more 
beautiful  countrysides,  towns,  and  cities,  and  its  influ- 
ence should  extend  to  a  greater  appreciation  of  all  art. 
When  scientific  agriculture  results  in  a  greater  econ- 
omy of  time,  allowing  more  leisure  and  a  saving  of 
labor,  then  men  and  women  will  have  more  heart  and 
ability  to  produce  and  appreciate  not  only  the  land- 
scape art,  but  other  fine  arts,  such  as  music,  painting, 
architecture,  and  literature. 

Moral  growth.  The  conservation  of  all  things  of 
real  worth,  whether  material  or  spiritual  is  possible 
only  when  the  moral  standards  of  men  are  high  and 
progressive.  There  can  be  no  permanent  agriculture, 
no  preservation  of  health,  no  genuine  art,  no  social 


6          THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

integrity  without  such  moral  standards  as  those  ex- 
pressed and  implied  in  the  Golden  Rule  and  the  two 
great  commandments.  Before  going  too  far  afield 
with  this  preachment,  let  us  ask  what  contributions 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  can  make  to  this  demand 
for  moral  growth.  If  the  teaching  of  agriculture  re- 
sults in  no  other  motive  than  that  for  personal  aggran- 
dizement, then  all  is  in  vain  so  far  as  moral  worth  is 
concerned.  But  if  there  results  through  the  teaching 
of  agriculture  a  spirit  of  service  for  the  common  'good, 
an  ideal  for  instance  of  permanent  soil  fertility,  im- 
proved plants  and  animals,  preserved  forests,  better 
roads  and  rural  institutions  for  the  benefit  not  only 
of  the  present  generation,  but  for  the  future  genera- 
tions, then  there  has  been  inculcated  into  the  minds 
and  hearts  of  the  people,  the  essence  of  moral  growth, 
and  a  practical  means  of  service.  No  small  factor  con- 
tributing to  the  moral  training  of  boys  and  girls  is  the 
work  of  caring  for  plants  and  animals  and  the  asso- 
ciations with  life  and  its  realities  in  the  open  country. 
Rural  organization.  Some  enthusiastic  rural-life 
workers  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  better  organization  of 
rural  life  and  forces  is  the  greatest  demand  of  our 
times.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
agriculture  and  rural  life  are  notoriously  unorganized 
as  compared  with  other  interests  and  industries. 
There  are  three  good  reasons  why  this  is  true;  the 
great  number  of  farmers,  their  isolation,  and  their 
extreme  individualism.  Because  there  are  these  diflS- 


j 

REASONS  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE  7 

culties  is  no  reason  why  there  should  not  be  better 
organization.  They  who  cannot  work  together,  or 
will  not  work  together,  are  the  natural  prey  of  those 
who  can,  and  for  the  reason  of  mere  self-defense,  rural 
organization  is  essential.  It  is  furthermore  a  biological 
principle  that  the  greater  the  organization  and  co- 
operation of  the  parts  of  a  body,  the  higher  the  form 
of  life  represented  in  that  body.  If  rural  life  would 
grow  in  all  its  parts  and  relations,  it  must  therefore 
be  organized  and  cooperative.  Now  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  leads  directly  to  rural  organization.  It 
organizes  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  it  teaches  cooperation 
in  buying  and  selling,  in  combating  insects  and  dis- 
eases, in  building  roads,  in  consolidating  schools,  and 
in  general  agricultural  and  rural-life  improvement. 

Liberal  education.  The  education  of  the  people 
collectively  and  individually  may  be  thought  of  as 
technical  or  vocational,  and  liberal  or  cultural.  Agri- 
culture is  the  vocation  of  most  of  the  people  in  the 
country,  and  all  that  is  included  in  the  science  and 
art  of  agriculture  would  certainly  be  technical  edu- 
cation of  practical  value  to  the  country  people.  In 
addition  to  this  education,  country  folks  should  have 
a  liberal  education  in  such  fields  of  learning  as  are 
usually  covered  in  an  accredited  public  high  school. 
English,  for  example,  would  be  a  subject  in  the  lib- 
eral education  of  the  farmer,  and  a  technical  subject 
for  the  professional  writer  or  speaker.  On  the  other 
hand,  agriculture  would  be  a  subject  of  liberal  edu- 


8    THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

cation  for  the  professional  writer,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  technical  subject  for  the  farmer.  A  wide  ex- 
tension of  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  public 
schools  would  liberalize  the  education  of  men  in  all 
vocations  as  well  as  give  technical  training  to  the 
farmer.  Furthermore,  to  give  scientific,  technical  edu- 
cation along  the  line  of  any  vocation  leads  the  student 
to  liberalize  and  broaden  his  general  education  in 
other  lines.  The  teaching  of  agriculture,  therefore, 
both  gives  technical  training  to  the  farmer  and  leads 
to  a  liberalizing  of  his  education,  and  contributes  to 
the  general  education  of  all  men  in  all  vocations.  To 
be  concrete,  accurate  information  about  plant  food 
elements  and  the  conservation  of  soil  fertility  should 
be  of  general  educational  value  to  men  in  any  walk 
of  life;  such  information  made  practical  is  technical 
knowledge  for  the  farmer,  and  in  the  study  and  appli- 
cation of  this  knowledge,  the  farmer  is  led  into  the 
field  of  botany,  chemistry,  economics,  etc.,  where  his 
education  is  broadened  and  liberalized.  As  his  suc- 
cess in  scientific  agriculture  leads  to  greater  prosperity, 
books,  travel,  schooling,  etc.,  bring  the  farmer's  life 
into  larger  and  more  liberal  fields  of  education. 

According  to  the  statements  of  many  educators, 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  requires  the  services  of  a 
teacher  better  trained  academically,  and  better  trained 
in  psychology,  pedagogy,  and  methods,  than  does  the 
teaching  of  any  of  the  subjects  now  included  in  the 
school  curriculum.  "  The  teaching  of  agriculture  em- 


REASONS  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE  9 

braces  the  whole  of  a  teacher's  art.  It  is  a  pervasive 
and  exacting  subject.  It  embodies  the  most  impor- 
tant aspects  of  character  building;  for  in  teaching 
pupils  scientifically  to  plant,  cultivate,  and  harvest 
farm  crops,  and  to  care  for  farm  animals,  we  are  train- 
ing them  in  some  of  the  most  valuable  lessons  of  life. 
Industry  is  not  only  explained  and  commended,  but 
it  is  realized.  It  has  been  amply  demonstrated  that 
those  persons  who  have  had  special  training  along  the 
lines  of  agriculture  are  able  not  only  to  make  this  sub- 
ject a  vital  one  in  the  schoolroom,  but  in  the  com- 
munity as  well.  Tax  payers  and  parents  have  come 
to  feel  that  our  schools  must  offer  instruction  in  the 
real  activities  of  life." 

What  Dr.  Coulter  says  of  the  value  of  science  in 
education  applies  to  agriculture.  "  If  the  proper  in- 
tellectual result  of  the  humanities  is  appreciation, 
whose  processes  demand  self -injection,  the  proper  and 
distinctive  result  of  the  sciences  is  a  formula,  to  obtain 
which  there  must  be  rigid  self -elimination.  The  stand- 
ard of  science  is  absolute,  founded  upon  eternal  truth. 
Two  such  distinct  mental  attitudes  as  self-injection 
and  self-elimination  must  receive  attention  in  educa- 
tion, which  cannot  be  complete  without  both." 

Rural  problems.  The  foregoing  paragraphs  have 
merely  attempted  briefly  to  state  some  of  the  sanest 
demands  of  modern  education,  and  to  say  rather  arbi- 
trarily without  elaborate  proof  that  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  will  contribute  in  large  measure  to  the 


10        ;THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

adequate  supplying  of  these  needs.  We  may  organ- 
ize these  demands  as  rural  problems  and  state  them 
in  another  way  and  come  to  the  same  conclusion  that 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  will  help  materially  in 
solving  the  rural  problems. 

We  may  suggest  three  main  groups  of  rural  prob- 
lems, to  which  the  teaching  of  agriculture  must  turn. 

a.  The  problems  of  farm  improvement.  How  can  we 
improve  the  soil?  How  can  we  have  better  breeds 
of  plants  and  animals?  How  can  we  have  better 
systems  of  farm  management?  How  can  we  bet- 
ter protect  against  the  ravages  of  plant  and  ani- 
mal diseases  and  pests?  These  are  all  questions 
of  increased  productivity   and  constitute  one 

T  group  of  rural  problems.  But  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  consumer  as  well  as  from  the  farmer, 
we  have  not  yet  solved  the  farm  problem  when 
we  have  increased  productivity.  We  find  a  sec- 
ond group  of  rural  problems,  namely:  — 

b.  The  problems  of  marketing  and  exchange.    How 
can  the  farmer  get  money  to  carry  on  his  business 
to  advantage?  How  can  he  best  buy  his  supplies? 
How  can  he  best  sell  his  products?    Here  are 
matters  of  highest  importance,  and  problems  of 
a  knotty  character.   There  arises  in  connection 
with  the  development  of  agriculture  a  third 
group  of  problems:  — 

c.  The  problems  of  community  life.  This  group  com- 
prises such  questions  as  the  efficiency  of  rural 


REASONS  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE    11 

government;  the  influence  of  the  rural  home; 
the  improvement  of  the  rural  school;  the  lead- 
ership of  the  rural  church;  the  attainment  of 
adequate  social   and   recreative  facilities;   the 
maintenance  of  a  high  standard  of  morals;  the 
beautifying  of  homesteads  and  roadsides. 
These  are  practical  working  groups  of  rural  prob- 
lems, stated  here  in  order  to  show  a  line  of  approach, 
or  a  point  of  view  in  teaching  agriculture.  It  must  be 
fairly  evident  at  the  outset  that  efficient  teaching  of 
agriculture  must  and  will  help  solve  the  problems  of 
farm  improvement,  of  marketing,  and  of  community 
life,  especially  when  we  consider  agriculture  as  an  in- 
dustry, as  a  business,  and  as  a  life,  and  teach  it  in  this 
threefold  aspect. 


n 

NATURE-STUDY  PRECEDING  AGRICULTURE 

Nature-study  principles.  Since  agricultural  mate- 
rial and  agricultural  life  deal  constantly  with  the 
things  and  processes  of  nature,  an  intelligent  under- 
standing of,  and  sympathy  with,  these  things  and 
processes  would  seem  necessary  in  order  that  men  and 
women  be  able  to  adjust  themselves  best  to  the  envi- 
ronment in  which  they  "  live,  move,  and  have  their 
being."  Nature-study  proposes  to  give  boys  and  girls 
in  the  earlier  grades  of  the  public  schools  this  acquain- 
tance with,  and  interest  in,  the  natural  world  which 
will  furnish  a  basis  for  further  study  of  the  pure  and 
applied  sciences  to  those  who  continue  in  school,  and 
for  those  who  drop  out  of  school,  and  this  will  be  by 
far  the  larger  number,  an  intelligent  interest  in  nature 
which  will  contribute  to  their  success  and  happiness 
in  whatever  walk  of  life  they  may  follow. 

When  we  think  of  nature-study  in  a  sane  way,  there 
can  be  no  objection  to  it,  either  from  the  ultra-prac- 
tical farmer  or  the  most  theoretical  pedagogue.  Be- 
fore the  seventh  grade  of  the  public  school,  agricul- 
ture should  probably  not  be  taught  as  a  vocational  or 
technical  subject.  Nature-study  should  here  be  the 
content  and  spirit  of  the  work.  Nature-study  should 


NATURE-STUDY  PRECEDING  AGRICULTURE    13 

be  pre-vocational  to  agriculture.  It  will  underlie  and 
prepare  for  future  work  in  agriculture  whether  taken 
up  in  school  or  as  a  life  vocation.  We  may  not  always 
be  sure  it  is  best  to  introduce  subjects,  merely  be- 
cause practical  grown-up  men  think  that  the  subjects 
are  useful.  Farming  is  one  thing,  and  teaching  agri- 
culture in  the  public  schools  is  another.  What  ap- 
peals to  the  man  may  not  appeal  to  the  child  at  all. 
The  agriculture  in  the  lower  grades  should  be  nature- 
study.  The  principles  to  guide  in  the  selection  of 
materials,  and  in  the  teaching  of  nature-study  in  the 
grades  of  the  public  schools,  may  be  stated  as  fol- 
lows:— 

a.  The    definition  —  Nature-study    is  a  direct  ob- 
servation study  of  the  common  things  and  proc- 
esses of  nature,  from  the  standpoint  of  our  human 
interest  in  nature  as  it  touches  our  daily  life 
directly. 

b.  Nature-study    should    be    differentiated    from 
technical  science,  both  in  subject-matter  and 
method.  It  may  contribute  to  a  further  study  of 
the  sciences,  but  it  should  not  be  technical  sci- 
ence, even  though  reduced  to  words  of  one  syl- 
lable. 

c.  The   aims:    (1)  To  give  general  acquaintance 
with,  and  interest  in,  the  common  things  and 
processes  of  nature.   (2)  To  give  training  in  accu- 
rate observation  as  a  means  of  gaining  knowledge 
direct  from  nature.    (3)  To  give  pupils  useful 


14         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

knowledge  concerning  natural  objects  and  proc- 
esses as  they  directly  affect  human  life  interests. 

d.  The  method  of  all  nature-study  should  be  obser- 
vational.   The  teacher  and  pupils  must  here 
escape  from  textbooks  and  four  walls.   Nature- 
study  and  agriculture  are  live  subjects  and  they 
are  out  of  doors:  Pupils  must  see  real  things 
and  think  for  themselves. 

e.  The  materials  to  be  studied  must  be  the  most 
common  and  the  most  interesting  from  the  stand- 
point of  everyday  life. 

/.  Nature-study  must  be  for  the  child  and  not  for 
the  adult.   We  must  recognize  the  principles  of 
child  study  in  all  nature-study  work.    Primary 
|  grade  pupils  ask,  "  What  is  it?  "  Intermediate 
pupils  ask,  "  How?  "    Upper  grade  pupils  ask, 
"  Why?  "  in  the  presence  of  nature  phenomena, 
and  the  school,  through  nature-study  should  an- 
swer these  questions  for  the  child. 
Nature-study  for   primary   grades  —  grades   one 
and  two.  In  the  first  years  of  the  school  there  is  sure 
to  be  much  unorganized  nature-study.   The  purpose 
in  these  grades  should  be  to  give  general  acquaintance 
with,  and  to  arouse  interest  in,  the  common  things 
and  processes  of  nature.  The  children  of  these  grades 
ask,  "  What  is  it?  "  in  the  presence  of  nature.  Birds, 
trees,  insects,  flowers,  wild  animals,  and  pets,  should 
be  the  general  topics.   Select  the  nearest  at  hand  and 
most  interesting  nature  material.    A  detail   study 


NATURE-STUDY  PRECEDING  AGRICULTURE    15 

should  not  be  attempted.  It  is  better  to  return  again 
and  again  to  the  same  interesting  things  of  nature, 
than  to  try  to  "  finish  "  in  a  stated  tune.  The  sequence 
of  the  seasons  should  be  a  large  factor  in  the  selection 
of  nature-study  material.  During  the  autumn  months 
work  may  be  done  with  animal  pets,  animals  that 
work  for  us;  learn  the  names  and  the  simple  life  his- 
tory of  a  few  common  insects;  a  few  trees,  ten  or 
twelve,  should  be  recognized  and  called  by  name,  fruit 
trees  and  nut  trees  especially;  arouse  interest  in  arbor 
day  and  tree-planting;  observe  leaf  coloration;  note 
seed  dispersal  among  weeds  and  wild  plants;  learn  the 
names  of  a  few  common  birds,  and  arouse  interest 
in  their  winter  migration;  nature-study  myths  and 
stories  may  be  used  by  a  judicious  teacher.  During 
the  winter  months,  some  physical  nature-study  may 
be  given;  observe  the  compass  and  the  thermometer 
and  learn  how  to  read  them;  observe  clouds  and  learn 
to  distinguish  rain  clouds  from  other  kinds;  make 
simple  daily  weather  charts;  teach  relation  of  sun, 
moon,  etc.,  to  directions;  have  window  boxes  and 
pots  with  growing  plants;  teach  the  care  of  plants 
and  animals  in  winter;  note  signs  of  approaching 
spring,  the  arrival  of  early  birds,  the  opening  of  early 
buds,  etc.  Simple  lessons  in  hygiene  may  be  put  on  an 
observation  basis  and  be  made  good  nature-study.  For 
the  spring  months,  note  early  spring  activities  in 
nature;  begin  in  a  simple  way  a  bird  calendar;  learn 
to  recognize  by  song  and  sight  ten  or  a  dozen  com- 


16         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

mon  birds;  note  the  opening  of  the  flower  and  leaf- 
buds  in  the  trees;  learn  to  know  the  common  spring 
flowers,  avoid  formal  dissections,  learn  their  names 
and  where  they  grow;  children  of  these  grades  may 
have  school  gardens,  working  in  groups;  field  trips 
to  study  brook-life,  pond-life,  field  and  forest  should 
be  made  whenever  possible.  Have  all  excursions  well 
planned,  and  keep  the  attention  of  the  children  con- 
stantly to  the  natural  things  and  processes  about  them. 
Nature-study  in  third  and  fourth  grades.  Since 
these  grades  of  the  public  school  usually  take  up  oral 
and  home  geography,  and  since  this  work  should  be 
placed  largely  on  an  observation  basis,  and  deal  with 
the  common  things  and  processes  of  nature,  the  na- 
ture-study work  of  these  grades  and  the  home-geog- 
raphy may  be  combined  as  one  course.  The  general 
topics  usually  outlined  for  home  geography  will  make 
good  nature-study  material,  and  the  work  outlined 
for  the  preceding  grades  will  give  good  preparation 
for  this  phase  of  nature-study.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  children  of  these  grades  not  only  ask, 
"  What  is  it?  "  in  the  presence  of  nature,  but  "  How?  " 
introduces  many  of  their  questions,  and  then-  study 
and  observations  must  answer  these  questions.  Au- 
tumn activities  of  farm  and  home  will  furnish  good 
subject-matter  for  the  beginning  of  the  nature  work 
in  these  grades.  Location  of  country  homes  and  roads; 
maps  of  school  grounds  and  home  grounds  should 
be  made;  interpretation  of  maps  of  local  regions;  les- 


NATURE-STUDY  PRECEDING  AGRICULTURE    17 

sons  on  hills,  valleys,  streams,  prairies,  etc. ;  methods 
of  communication  and  travel;  food  stuffs  bought  and 
sold  in  the  community;  harvesting,  marketing,  stor- 
ing, and  preserving  of  food  for  man  and  farm  animals 
in  autumn;  observation  lessons  upon  the  principal 
farm  crops  and  animals  of  the  community;  not  a  tech- 
nical study,  but  merely  such  interesting  information 
as  will  arouse  interest  in  farm  life  and  affairs;  learn 
about  the  wild  animals  of  the  State,  our  friends  and 
foes  among  them.  During  the  winter  months,  the 
pupils  may  study  and  observe  the  materials  used  in 
building  our  houses,  lumber,  stone,  brick,  clay,  etc.; 
observe  effects  of  weathering  on  these  materials;  have 
pupils  confer  with  workmen  who  will  gladly  give  in- 
formation about  building  material;  study  water,  how 
we  get  water,  how  plants  get  water,  effects  of  water  on 
land  forms,  formation  of  ice,  snow,  etc.;  observation 
of  common  types  of  soil,  grow  plants  in  pots  of  rich 
soil  and  poor  soil;  study  hygienic  and  sanitary  con- 
ditions of  the  school  and  home  surroundings;  study 
evergreen  trees  and  their  especial  adaptation  to  win- 
ter conditions,  learn  names  of  more  trees;  in  studying 
the  various  industries  taken  up  in  the  elementary 
geographies  —  fishing,  lumbering,  mining,  manufac- 
turing, farming,  etc.,  use  the  materials  of  the  indus- 
tries, as  far  as  possible  for  nature-study  work.  For 
the  spring  work  of  these  grades,  garden  work  is  well 
adapted.  Each  pupil  should  have  his  own  plot  of 
ground,  either  at  school  or  at  home.  Pupils  should 


18    THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

note  the  home  markets  for  local  and  foreign  sup- 
plies and  learn  where  the  products  go  and  come, 
from  the  markets;  note  time  required  for  germination 
of  seeds;  identify  weeds  as  they  appear  in  yard  and 
garden;  study  flowers,  wild  plants,  shrubs,  and  trees 
in  connection  with  beautifying  the  home  and  school 
grounds;  review  constantly  the  pupils'  acquaintance 
with  common  trees,  wild  flowers,  birds,  insects,  grains, 
and  grasses  of  the  community.  All  these  topics  should 
be  unified  and  organized  about  the  home  life  and  in- 
terests of  the  community. 

Nature-study  in  the  fifth  grade.  (May  be  alter- 
nated with  sixth-grade  work,  and  both  grades  com- 
bined each  year.)  Since  so  large  a  number  of  the  school 
population  drops  out  about  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades, 
it  becomes  very  important  that  the  nature-study 
work  of  these  grades  should  give  to  the  future  citizens 
correct  and  helpful  information  along  biological  and 
physical  lines,  enabling  them  to  adjust  themselves 
more  sympathetically  and  intelligently  to  then*  en- 
vironments. It  would  seem  best  therefore  in  these 
grades  to  have  some  rather  intensive  work  along  the 
larger  and  more  important  groups  of  nature  mate- 
rial touching  human  interests.  Economic  considera- 
tions appeal  to  children,  but  these  should  not  be  over- 
emphasized. In  this  and  later  grades  the  children  in 
addition  to  asking  "What"  and  "How,"  are  ask- 
ing "  Why."  They  want  to  know  the  reasons  for  nat- 
ural things  and  processes.  Children  should  keep  good 


NATURE-STUDY  PRECEDING  AGRICULTURE    19 

notebooks,  prepare  pictures,  charts,  calendars,  etc. 
It  should  not  be  the  aim  in  these  grades  to  attempt 
technical  science,  but  to  arouse  a  permanent  and  in- 
telligent interest  in  the  common  things  and  processes 
of  nature,  so  that  the  boy  or  girl  may  become  a  citi- 
zen, able  and  willing  to  enter  a  vocation  and  to  do 
effective  economic  work  for  his  community,  because 
of  a  better  understanding  of  natural  things,  laws,  and 
processes. 

It  will  not  be  in  place  here  to  outline  a  course  of 
study  in  detail  for  this  grade.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
trees  and  insects  should  furnish  the  large  topics  for 
the  autumn  work;  domestic  and  wild  animals,  sail, 
rock  studies,  and  simple  astronomical  observations,  for 
the  winter  months;  and  garden  work,  bird  studies, 
field  and  orchard  observations,  the  work  for  the  spring 
season.  In  this  grade  credit  for  home  work  in  garden 
projects  may  be  allowed.  The  pupils  of  this  grade 
will  usually  be  able  to  assimilate  about  as  much  in- 
formation along  the  line  of  the  large  topics  mentioned 
above  as  the  teacher  of  these  grades  can  give.  If  the 
work  be  put  on  an  observation  basis,  related  to  prac- 
tical interests,  and  carried  on  out  of  doors  and  with 
nature  material  as  far  as  is  possible,  there  is  little  dan- 
ger of  its  becoming  too  technical  or  advanced  for  this 
grade,  and  the  interest  and  information  acquired  will 
be  of  permanent  worth  to  the  boys  and  girls. 

Nature-study  in  the  sixth  grade.  (May  be  alter- 
nated with  the  fifth-grade  work,  and  both  grades 


£0         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTUKE 

combined  each  year.)  In  the  sixth  grade  we  may  be- 
gin a  correlation  of  physical  nature-study  with  geog- 
raphy and  arithmetic.  At  least  two  periods  a  week 
may  profitably  be  given  to  special  topics  in  physical 
nature-study,  such  as  light,  heat,  sound,  and  elec- 
tricity, keeping  always  in  mind  the  nature-study 
viewpoint, ,  and  avoiding  science  abstractions.  The 
work  in  both  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  should  gradu- 
ally point  the  way  to  the  sciences  and  vocations 
which  it  has  served  to  develop  and  introduce. 

The  large  topics  for  general  study  throughout  the 
year  should  be  water,  its  properties  and  relationships; 
elementary  studies  of  air  and  its  relation  to  life;  sim- 
ple tools  and  mechanical  principles;  heat,  what  it  does 
and  how  produced;  light,  sources  and  applications  in 
common  processes  of  life;  sound,  principles  applied  to 
common  utilities;  simple  studies  in  electricity,  and  its 
common  uses;  simple  chemistry  of  cleaning  and  sani- 
tation; elementary  life  relations  of  plants  and  animals 
to  the  various  physical  processes  and  phenomena 
studied. 

The  nature-study  work  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades 
should  be  a  sort  of  general  science  training,  enabling 
the  pupils  to  find  intelligent  and  sympathetic  adjust- 
ment to  their  natural  environment.  This  is  necessary 
whether  as  a  preparation  for  adult  living  without 
further  academic  training,  or  for  a  prerequisite  to 
further  scientific  study. 


Ill 

ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE  AND  BOYS'  AND 
GIRLS'  CLUB  WORK 

Some  suggestions  as  to  content  of  courses,  and 
methods.  It  is  an  easy  step  and  a  proper  one  from 
the  nature-study  work  of  the  lower  grades  of  the 
schools  to  elementary  agriculture.  "  Agriculture  in 
the  grades  is  something  more  than  nature-study.  It 
is  nature-study  plus  utility.  It  is  nature-study  with 
an  economic  significance."  l  Below  the  seventh  grade 
agriculture  as  a  vocational  subject  should  not  be 
taught,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  club  work 
when  carried  on  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  as  de- 
scribed later.  In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  it 
should  be  taught  as  intensively  and  extensively  as 
the  capabilities  of  the  pupils  and  the  training  of  the 
teacher  will  make  possible.  The  emphasis  should  be 
placed  upon  the  vocational  phases  of  the  subject.  It 
should  be  assumed  as  a  point  of  view  that  here,  hi  these 
grades,  the  pupils  are  having  their  last  chance  to  study 
agriculture  in  a  systematic  way  in  school;  therefore, 
the  major  topics  of  agriculture  must  be  taught  as 
thoroughly  and  as  practically  as  possible.  It  should  be 
furthermore  assumed  that  the  students  are  studying 
1  From  Davenport's  Education  for  Efficiency. 


22         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

agriculture  to  prepare  for  the  vocation  of  farming,  and 
hence  the  practical  vocational  features  should  receive 
the  emphasis.  In  the  face  of  these  assumptions,  if  the 
pupils  should  continue  the  study  of  agriculture  beyond 
these  grades,  or  go  into  other  vocations  than  agricul- 
ture, the  point  of  view  above  taken  will  not  in  the 
least  handicap  their  progress.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  assumption  prove  true,  the  direct  vocational  train- 
ing will  be  of  inestimable  value  to  the  student. 

Two  methods  of  procedure  are  used  in  teaching 
elementary  agriculture  in  the  grammar  grades. 

The  textbook  method.  Basing  the  work  as  far  as 
possible  upon  the  seasonal  sequence  of  actual  farm 
operations  and  interests,  this  method  follows  some 
good  textbook  in  the  study  of  the  principles  and 
practices  of  the  major  phases  of  agriculture,  such  as 
agronomy,  animal  husbandry,  the  farm  physical  plant, 
farm  business,  and  horticulture,  supplementing  the 
work  in  proper  order  and  proportion  with  laboratory, 
field,  and  home  practical  exercises.  In  most  cases  it 
has  been  found  best  to  give  this  work  to  the  combined 
seventh  and  eighth  grades,  divided  so  as  to  provide 
two  years  of  work  and  given  in  alternate  years.  Under 
this  plan  the  first  year's  work  is  given  to  the  plant 
industry,  and  the  second  year's  work  to  animal  hus- 
bandry. When  the  seasonal  sequence  can  be  followed, 
illustrative  material  is  easily  obtained,  the  interest  of 
the  pupil  is  at  once  awakened,  and  cooperation  with 
the  farm  activities  is  natural  and  inevitable. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  23 

Some  of  the  larger  topics  in  the  study  of  the  plant 
industries  for  one  year  of  the  alternation,  are:  — 

1.  How  plants  live  and  grow. 

2.  The  wheat  crop. 

3.  The  corn  crop. 

4.  Other  cereal  grains. 

5.  Legumes. 

6.  Weeds  and  grasses. 

7.  The  farm  orchard. 

8.  Elementary  soil  studies. 

9.  Implements  in  crop  production. 

10.  The  farm  woodlot. 

11.  Plant  propagation. 

12.  The  vegetable  garden. 

13.  Beautifying  home  grounds. 

14.  Marketing  farm  crops. 

15.  Crop  rotation. 

16.  Systems  of  grain  farming. s 

Some  of  the  larger  topics  in  the  study  of  animal  hus- 
bandry for  one  year  of  the  alternation,  are:  — 

1.  The  live-stock  business. 

2.  Importance  of  farm  animals  to  man. 

3.  Swine. 

4.  Beef  cattle. 

5.  Sheep. 

6.  Dairy  cattle. 

7.  Horses. 

8.  Poultry. 


24         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

More  detailed  outlines  of  these  courses  are  given  in 
the  Appendix. 

An  elementary  textbook,  with  plenty  of  reading 
matter  giving  full  discussion  of  principles  and  prac- 
tices of  well-known  and  established  agricultural  in- 
formation, should  be  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil.  Sim- 
ple laboratory  exercises  and  demonstrations,  having 
a  direct  bearing  on  agricultural  practices  should  oc- 
cupy at  least  two  fifths  of  the  class  work  time.  A  great 
part  of  these  exercises  may  well  be  field  trips  taken 
by  the  entire  class,  or  home  work,  related  to  the  sub- 
ject under  discussion,  done  by  the  individual  student 
on  the  home  farm  under  definite  direction.  A  very 
good  method,  and  at  the  same  time  one  wholly  prac- 
ticable, would  be  to  give  two  or  three  formal  class- 
room textbook  recitations  per  week  and  require  two 
or  three  definitely  assigned  pieces  of  home  work,  of 
an  agricultural  nature,  per  week.  Form  blanks,  upon 
which  the  parents  could  vouch  for  the  work  done  each 
week  or  month,  would  facilitate  this  method  of  cred- 
iting home  work  in  agriculture.  Unfortunately,  no 
text  has  been  prepared,  or  lists  of  home  work  sched- 
uled, to  fit  into  such  a  plan.  Textbook  work,  wherein 
correct  scientific  principles  of  agriculture  are  learned, 
as  well  as  laboratory  and  actual  farm  practice,  is  both 
a  practical  and  necessary  part  of  successful  agricul- 
tural training  in  any  grade  of  school  instruction. 

Home  project  work  described  in  more  detail  under 
the  high-school  courses,  may  be  a  large  feature  of 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  25 

the  methods  used  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
agriculture,  supplementing  the  text  and  laboratory 
work.  The  homes  and  farms  of  the  open  country  fur- 
nish the  best  laboratories  for  school  instruction  that 
can  be  provided  for  any  school. 

It  must  be  clear  to  the  reader  that  this  work  in 
elementary  agriculture  can  best  be  given  in  the  con- 
solidated rural  schools,  where  better-trained  teachers 
are  usually  found,  where  supervision  is  provided,  and 
where  more  time  is  allowed  for  the  subject  than  is 
possible  in  the  one-room  country  school.  Good  work 
in  elementary  agriculture,  however,  can  be  done  hi 
the  one-room  country  schools,  and  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  of  the  city  schools,  and  the  handicaps 
of  each  of  these  classes  of  schools  should  not  prevent 
them  from  undertaking  instruction  in  the  elements 
of  agriculture. 

The  home  project  club  method.  Basing  the  work 
upon  home  projects,  this  method  organizes  the  activi- 
ties and  studies  around  the  subject-matter  of  these 
projects  carried  on  by  the  boys  and  girls  as  members 
of  groups,  generally  known  as  boys'  and  girls'  clubs. 
These  agricultural  clubs  are  associations  of  boys  and 
girls  for  the  purpose  of  growing  or  producing  the  most 
and  best  of  a  specified  product  on  a  certain  area  of 
ground,  under  definite  rules  which  all  agree  to  follow. 
These  clubs  at  first  emphasized  the  competitive  fea- 
tures of  their  work,  but  more  and  more  they  are  get- 
ting away  from  wrong  standards  too  often  set  up  by 


26        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

large  awards,  to  the  ideal  of  good  work  well  done,  with 
the  products  successfully  disposed  of,  as  a  sufficient 
reward  for  the  work.  The  work  of  the  girls  in  these 
clubs  usually  centers  about  garment-making,  canning, 
gardening,  and  poultry-raising. 

Mr.  O.  H.  Benson,  National  Club  Leader,  states 
the  definition  as  follows:  "  Club  work  is  an  organized 
system  of  extension  teaching  for  young  people  through 
demonstrations  in  the  field  and  home.  It  contem- 
plates the  organization  of  young  people  into  groups 
called  clubs,  for  the  purpose  of  definite  work  under 
carefully  prepared  projects,  and  with  adequate  local 
leadership."  "  Eventually  these  clubs,  which  are  now 
widespread,  will  probably  be  incorporated  into  some 
more  permanent  form  of  educational  organization; 
but  they  are  performing  a  useful  function  as  at  present 
constituted,  and  they  seem  to  be  an  important  link 
in  the  evolution  of  a  more  efficient  system.  The  clubs 
are  being  closely  affiliated  with  the  work  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  and  are  beginning  to  be  regarded  as  a  de- 
finite part  of  the  educational  system."1 

Club  work  may  well  begin  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grades  of  the  school  and  continue  as  the  basis  for 
agricultural  instruction  throughout  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades,  and  even  into  the  first  years  of  the  high 
school. 

The  purposes  of  boys'  and  girls'  agricultural  club 
work  as  set  forth  by  J.  H.  Greene,  Illinois  State 
Leader,  are:  — 

1  From  Lcakes's  Means  and  Methods  of  Agricultural  Education. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  87 

1.  To  teach  practical  vocational  agriculture. 

2.  To  help  boys  and  girls  to  become  producers  and 
thereby  lessen  the  high  cost  of  living. 

3.  To  teach  business  methods  and  thrift  by  pro- 
moting the  selling  of  products  and  the  canning 
of  the  surplus. 

4.  To  stimulate  community  spirit  in  boys  and  girls 
through  the  organization  of  neighborhood  or 
school  clubs. 

5.  To  capitalize  and  turn  to  good  account  the  gang 
spirit  naturally  inherent  in  boys,  by  directing 
their  vacation  activities  along  social  as  well  as 
economic  lines. 

6.  To  provide  a  plan  whereby  the  public  school 
system  and  the  various  religious  and  civic  or- 
ganizations can  together  give  direction  to  young 
people  along  the  lines  indicated  by  providing: 
(1)  capable  leadership  and  (2)  suitable  awards. 

In  the  study  and  practice  which  contribute  to  vocational 
efficiency  we  may  distinguish  three  aspects,  each  involving 
distinct  pedagogical  characteristics  and  special  problems 
of  administration.  To  train  the  horticulturist,  for  example, 
it  is  necessary  to  give  him  a  variety  of  practical  experiences 
in  working  with  soil  and  plants,  and  with  the  problems  of 
marketing.  In  addition,  he  may  and  should  study  those 
phases  of  botany,  physics,  chemistry,  entomology,  bac- 
teriology, meteorology,  economics,  etc.,  which  contribute 
useful  technical  information  and  principles.  A  further  field 
of  possible  study  is  found  in  the  history  of  horticulture,  and 
the  practice  of  that  craft  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  the 
evolution  of  plant  life,  etc.  The  first  group  of  studies  and 


28        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

practices  may  be  called  the  concrete,  specific,  or  practical; 
the  second  group,  the  technical;  and  the  third,  the  general 
vocational  studies.1 

Boys'  and  girls'  club  work  affords  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  the  practical  aspects  of  a  system  of  voca- 
tional education,  involving  these  three  pedagogical 
divisions. 

Dr.  Snedden  further  states  in  his  Problems  of  Sec- 
ondary Education  that  the  keynote  of  the  newer  edu- 
cation in  these  fields  is  to  be  found  in  the  development 
of  f acilities  for  obtaining  the  practical  experience  un- 
der conditions  as  nearly  approximating  those  of  the 
actual  vocation  as  can  be  obtained. 

In  the  field  of  agricultural  education  this  seems 
especially  desirable,  although  in  most  of  our  schools 
the  practical  work  is  little  more  than  an  "  imitation  " 
of  the  real  thing,  because  of  administrative  difficul- 
ties connected  with  the  organization  of  definite  units 
of  practice  in  some  phase  of  the  actual  vocation.  The 
only  practice  that  will  prove  to  be  worth  while  edu- 
cationally and  vocationally  is  that  which  requires  the 
student  to  organize,  on  an  economic  basis,  certain 
agricultural  activities  which  he  will  carry  through  to 
the  final  fruition.  The  growing  of  an  acre  of  corn, 
the  cultivation  and  management  of  a  home  vegetable 
garden,  the  care  and  handling  of  poultry,  the  raising 
of  pigs,  etc.,  are  agricultural  projects  commonly  car- 
ried on  by  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  and  these  projects, 
1  From  Snedden's  The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education. 


ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  29 

properly  directed  by  the  public  schools,  offer  excel- 
lent opportunities  to  furnish  practical  work  and  the 
vocational  training  for  the  grammar  grades  which  is 
most  satisfactory  both  to  the  schools  and  to  the  homes. 
More  will  be  said  in  this  connection  under  the  dis- 
cussion of  home  projects  for  the  high-school  agricul- 
tural work. 

It  may  be  well  to  go  into  further  detail  on  the  sec- 
ond method,  since  it  is  coming  into  greater  favor 
among  agricultural  education  leaders.  Under  the 
plan,  the  boys  and  girls  who  are  to  take  agriculture 
are  organized  into  clubs,  and  assigned  to  definite 
home  projects.  Among  the  projects  usually  carried  on 
by  the  clubs  are  corn-growing,  pig-raising,  poultry- 
raising,  gardening,  dairying,  potato-growing,  tomato- 
growing,  garment-making,  and  a  number  of  others 
depending  upon  local  conditions  and  interests.  All 
the  members  of  the  class  take  the  same  one  or  two 
projects  for  the  year  and  for  a  second  year  the  class 
may  take  new  projects  or  continue  the  old  ones  as 
seems  advisable  and  practical. 

The  following  general  outline  of  a  home  project  in 
corn-growing  indicates  the  method  of  using  this  work 
as  a  basis  for  the  work  in  elementary  agriculture:  — 

1.  Plans  for  club  organization  for  cooperative  work 
in  buying,  selling,  exhibiting,  and  social  activ- 
ities. 

2.  Calendar  of  monthly  operations  giving  details 
for  all  field  and  indoor  work,  notebook,  and 


30        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

record  work,  reading  and  study  for  each  month 
of  the  year. 

3.  Study  of  the  technical  subject-matter  on  corn 
production  from  the  selection  of  the  seed  to  the 
harvesting  and  storing  of  the  crop.  These  stud- 
ies should  parallel  in  so  far  as  possible  the  home 
practical  work,  and  include  all  closely  related 
topics. 

4.  Laboratory  exercises,  correlated  with  the  proj- 
ect work  in  seasonal  sequence. 

Similar  plans  for  many  home  projects  may  be 
worked  out  as  a  basis  for  the  elementary  agriculture 
of  these  grades. 


IV 

HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

Some  curriculum  problems.  The  first  questions  al- 
ways arising  with  the  introduction  of  agriculture  into 
the  high  school  are,  (a)  What  are  the  purposes  of  the 
course?  (6)  How  much  time  shall  be  given  to  it?  (c) 
How  shall  the  work  be  fitted  into  a  unified  science 
course  ?  and  (d)  How  shall  the  subject-matter  be 
organized  and  presented?  The  writer  is  fully  aware 
that  the  final  word  has  not  been  said  in  reply  to  any 
of  these  questions,  nor  does  he  presume  to  say  it  in 
these  pages,  but  the  teacher  of  agriculture  must  have 
a  working  theory  and  a  clear,  definite  program  for 
himself  in  order  to  accomplish  satisfactory  results.  It 
is  to  set  forth  some  guiding  principles  in  the  teaching 
of  high-school  agriculture  that  the  following  answers 
are  set  down  to  the  foregoing  questions. 

The  principal  aim  of  high-school  agriculture  should 
be  vocational  —  to  contribute  to  the  practical  edu- 
cation of  the  farmer.  Teaching  the  subject  with  this 
aim  and  by  the  methods  necessary,  need  not  lessen 
the  value  of  the  subject  as  a  factor  in  the  liberal  edu- 
cation of  the  student,  should  he  decide  not  to  enter 
the  vocation  of  farming.  The  high  schools  located 
near  the  great  masses  of  the  farming  population  may 


32         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

serve  in  this  capacity  much  better  than  the  colleges, 
and  being  better  equipped  in  every  way  than  the 
elementary  schools,  they  may  plan  to  do  vocational 
work  of  greater  value  than  is  possible  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools. 

How  much  time  should  be  given  to  agriculture  in 
the  high  school?  It  will  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  training  of  the  teacher,  the  location  of  the  school, 
and  the  general  interest  of  the  community.  There  is 
a  strong  opposition  growing  up  among  the  men  at 
work  in  high-school  agriculture  against  the  one-year 
general  course,  and  a  tendency  to  put  in  two  or  more 
years  of  agriculture,  devoting  single  semesters  to  spe- 
cial phases  of  the  work,  such  as  agronomy,  live  stock, 
horticulture,  etc.  Even  when  only  one  year  at  a  time 
can  be  given  to  agriculture,  secondary-school  men  are 
preferring  to  give  one  year  to  plant  industry  and  one 
year  to  animal  husbandry,  in  alternating  years,  rather 
than  to  give  the  one-year  general  course  with  its  ency- 
clopaedia hodge-podge  of  everything  pertaining  to  agri- 
culture from  corn  to  the  celestial  spheres.  There  might 
not  be  the  objection  to  the  one-year  course  as  a  gen- 
eral study,  providing  that  types  of  the  larger  topics 
were  taken  up  and  studied  thoroughly,  rather  than 
an  attempt  to  cover  every  important  phase  of  the 
major  divisions  of  agriculture.  Agricultural  education 
leaders  are  recommending  the  four-year  course  in 
agriculture  for  all  high  schools  prepared  to  emphasize 
vocational  training  in  their  curriculum. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  83 

Teachers  of  agriculture  cannot  say  how  or  where 
other  courses  of  the  high-school  curriculum  should 
be  given,  but  they  may  claim  at  least  one  fourth  of 
the  student's  time  in  school  for  this  subject.  It  is 
very  desirable  that  the  work  in  agriculture  be  in- 
cluded in  some  way  in  a  unified  science  course  which 
our  science  teachers  are  trying  to  work  out  for  the 
high  schools.  A  year  of  general  science  may  well  pre- 
cede any  high-school  course  in  agriculture.  Botany 
should  precede  or  parallel  farm  crops;  zoology,  ani- 
mal husbandry;  chemistry,  soil  fertility;  and  physics, 
farm  mechanics.  Perhaps  in  some  such  order  as  given 
above,  the  years'  courses  will  be  given  best.  A  com- 
mon and  successful  program  of  studies  offers  for  the 
first  year,  Agronomy,  including  farm  crops  and  the 
elements  of  soil  physics  and  soil  fertility  for  the  first 
semester,  and  General  Horticulture  for  the  second 
semester;  for  the  second  year,  Animal  Husbandry, 
including  dairying  and  poultry;  for  the  third  year, 
The  Farmstead,  including  farm  mechanics,  engineering 
and  management;  and  for  the  fourth  year,  semester 
units  in  Horticulture,  Improvement  of  Plants  and  Ani- 
mals, or  other  special  phases  of  agriculture  as  best 
suited  to  the  community  and  school  needs. 

We  are  hearing  a  great  deal  these  days  about  uni- 
form courses  in  agriculture,  reorganization  of  secon- 
dary courses  in  agriculture,  national  systems  of  agri- 
cultural education,  etc.,  but  so  long  as  agricultural 
conditions  and  interests  of  widely  separated  regions 


34         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

differ,  so  long  will  all  attempts  to  make  uniform  or 
national  systems  of  agricultural  education  fail.  In 
the  organization  of  subject-matter  for  the  courses  in 
secondary  school  agriculture,  teachers  will  continue 
to  be  guided  by  local  and  State  interests  and  by  the 
textbooks  adopted  for  the  courses.  The  following 
units  are  quite  generally  accepted,  and  fairly  good 
texts  are  available  in  each  for  high-school  use.  One 
unit  is  a  year's  work. 

Junior  and  senior  high-school  agriculture.  The 
tendency  to  the  organization  of  the  public  schools  on 
the  so-called  "  six  and  six  plan,"  raises  the  question 
of  agricultural  education  in  the  junior  and  senior  high 
schools.  Consistent  with  the  suggestions  made  in 
former  paragraphs  on  the  content  of  courses  for  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  elementary  agriculture, 
the  following  outline  for  junior  high-school  agriculture 
is  submitted:  — 

First  year. 

a.  Introduction  to  agriculture,  based  on  Davenport's 
plan,  published  by  Rand  McNally  Company. 

6.  Home  projects:  Poultry  and  Gardening. 
Second  year. 

a.  Introduction  to  agriculture,  continued. 

6.  Home  projects:  Corn  and  Pig  projects. 
Third  year. 

a.  General  science. 

b.  Home  projects:  Selected  according  to  local  needs 
and  former  projects  done  by  pupils. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  35 

Suggestions  for  senior  high-school  courses  follow:  — 

1.  Agronomy: 

a.  Farm  Crops ^  unit 

6.  Soils |  unit 

2.  Animal  Husbandry: 

a.  General  Studies  —  Types  and  Breeds %  unit 

b.  Dairying 5  unit 

c.  Poultry ^  unit 

d.  Feeds  and  Feeding \  unit 

3.  The  Farm  Physical  Plant: 

a.  Farm  Mechanics \  unit 

b.  Farm  Management £  unit 

4.  Horticulture: 

a.  General  Course \  unit 

6.  Vegetable  Gardening 5  unit 

c.  Landscape  Gardening %  unit 

d.  Pomology 5  unit 

5.  Improvement  of  Plants  and  Annuals ^  unit 

6.  Rural  Life  and  Affairs \  unit 

Agronomy  in  the  high  school.  Agronomy  is  a  divi- 
sion of  agriculture  treating  of  the  factors  in  crop  pro- 
duction and  the  economic  production  of  the  various 
farm  crops.  It  makes  an  excellent  first-year  subject 
hi  an  agriculture  course,  because  it  touches  so  many 
phases  of  agriculture,  and  lays  a  good  foundation  as 
an  introductory  branch.  The  growing  of  crops  is  the 
basis  of  all  agriculture.  We  plough,  fertilize,  and  cul- 
tivate the  soil  in  order  to  grow  crops.  We  depend 
upon  farm  crops  for  the  production  of  live-stock.  We 
manufacture  and  use  implements  in  order  to  produce 
and  harvest  farm  crops.  We  fight  to  control  insects 


36         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  plant  diseases  in  order  to  save  the  crops.  We  de- 
pend upon  crops  for  the  supply  of  human  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  a  large  part  of  our  shelter.  We  buy  and  sell 
farm  crops  as  a  commodity  in  many  branches  of  busi- 
ness. 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  agronomy,  dealing 
with  the  production  of  farm  crops,  should  precede  and 
introduce  other  phases  of  agriculture  in  the  high 
school.  This  subject  may  be  introduced  under  vari- 
ous names,  such  as  Agronomy,  Farm  Crops,  Intro- 
ductory Agriculture,  etc.,  but  it  should  always  be 
vocational,  not  an  agricultural  "  kink  "  to  botany, 
chemistry,  or  general  science.  These  subjects  should 
be  given  as  pure  sciences,  and  the  various  phases  of 
agriculture,  as  applied  sciences.  In  the  study  of  the 
pure  sciences  in  the  high  school,  illustrations  of  prin- 
ciples should  be  made,  and  applications  of  laws  seen, 
from  all  vocations  and  human  interests,  not  from 
agriculture  alone. 

Agronomy  properly  taught  includes  applications  of 
botany,  chemistry,  physics,  zoology,  geology,  etc., 
and  leads  to  practical  economic  crop  production.  It 
motivates  the  study  of  these  sciences  and  has  prac- 
tical value  hi  itself.  The  teacher  of  agronomy  may 
well  go  afield  at  times,  into  any  of  these  pure  sciences, 
in  order  to  make  sure  that  his  pupils  are  learning  the 
vocational  agronomy  that  will  "  stick  "  and  serve 
them  in  practical  production.  It  is  not  necessary, 
however  desirable  it  may  be,  that  the  high-school 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  37 

student  have  had  these  pure  sciences  in  order  to  learn 
the  agronomy  that  will  make  him  a  successful  pro- 
ducer of  crops,  and  if  he  becomes  that,  he  is  more 
likely  to  follow  up  later  with  a  study  of  the  related 
sciences,  than  he  is  to  follow  his  pure  science  with  prac- 
tical, vocational  agriculture. 

As  an  introductory  course  in  agriculture,  agron- 
omy affords  opportunity  for  the  study,  (l)  of  plant 
propagation  and  the  principles  of  plant  growth;  (2)  of 
economic  farm  crops;  (3)  of  soils  and  plant  foods;  (4) 
of  farm  machinery  used  in  connection  with  crop  pro- 
duction; (5)  of  insects  and  plant  diseases  affecting  the 
crops  studied;  (6)  of  elementary  work  in  breeding;  and 
(7)  of  crop  rotation  and  problems  of  farm  manage- 
ment and  other  farm  business.  Many  of  the  phases  of 
agriculture  necessarily  included  in  the  study  of  agron- 
omy are  taken  up  later  as  special  courses,  and  the 
introductory  study  here  made  furnishes  a  basis  for 
future  work.  , . 

A  study  of  agronomy  in  the  high  school  should  lead 
to  an  understanding  of  the  processes  of  plant  growth, 
of  the  factors  in  crop  production,  together  with  an 
appreciation  of  the  scientific  basis  underlying  them, 
some  knowledge  of  a  few  special  crops,  a  fair  amount 
of  deftness  in  laboratory  work  and  other  practical 
exercises,  ready  and  accurate  observations,  and  the 
formation  of  right  ideas  of  agriculture  and  country 
life., 

94784 


38        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Lesson  Plan 
Introducing  a  Course  in  Elementary  Agriculture 

I.  Title:  Plants  —  How  They  Feed  and  Grow. 
II.  Aim:  To  show  relative  importance  of  plants  in  agricul- 
ture and  to  give  some  elementary  knowledge  of  plant 
growth. 

HI.  Materials  (charts  and  textbook  illustrations). 
IV.  Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

1.  Introduction. 

a.  Words  to  arouse  interest  in  general  subject 
of  agriculture,  importance  of  the  vocation 
to  society,  and  the  opportunities  for  the 
individual. 

b.  Plant  life  the  center  of  agricultural  study 
and  practice. 

2.  Presentation. 

a.  From  seed-time  to  harvest  many  interest- 
ing changes  take  place  to  produce  the  in- 
crease. 

6.  From  whence  the  increase  and  what  are 
the  factors  determining  the  amount  of  the 
harvest. 

t  c.  How  the  farmer  may  influence  these  fac- 
tors. 

d.  The  life  cycle  of  a  typical  economic 
plant. 

(1)  Begin  with  seed  —  a  storehouse. 

(2)  Essentials  and  processes  in  germina- 
tion. 

(3)  Chemical  composition  of  plants. 

{Water 80 per  cent 
Organic  matter  19  per  cent 
Ash 1  per  cent 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  39 

(4)  Elements  of  plant  food,  and  where 
the  plant  obtains  them. 

(5)  How  the  plant  gets  the  various  ele- 
ments. 

(6)  Nature  and  extent  of  roots.    How 
root-hairs  function. 

(7)  Work  of  soil  water  in  this  process. 

(8)  How  organic  matter  is  made  in  plants. 

(9)  Where  the  mineral  elements  go. , 

(10)  Reproductive  process. 

(11)  Maturing  of  the  plant. 

(12)  Where  the  life  cycle  ends. 

;  8.  Summary  —  Review  questions  and  problems. 

COURSE  IN  AGRONOMY 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit  —  First  or  second  year) 

Farm  Crops 

I.  Factors  in  crop  production. 

1.  Introductory  —  cultivated  plants. 

2.  Seed. 

8.  Soils  —  How  they  are  formed. 

4.  Soils  —  The  mineral  constituents. 

5.  Soils  —  The  organic  constituents. 

6.  Moisture. 

7.  Drainage  —  Removal  of  excess. 

8.  Conservation  and  increase  of  moisture. 

9.  Heat  and  light. 

10.  Elements  needed  by  plants. 

11.  Nitrogen. 

12.  Phosphorus  and  potassium. 

13.  Soil  improvement. 

14.  Tillage. 

15.  Aeration  and  bacteria. 

16.  Control  of  diseases,  insects,  and  weeds. 


40        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

II.  Crops  and  their  economic  production. 
1.  Grains. 

A.  Wheat. 

a.  Brief  history. 

6.  Why  so  long  and  generally  grown. 

C.  Cultivation. 

< 

(1)  Soil  preparation. 

(2)  Seeding  —  method,  amount,  treat- 
ment, etc. 

(2)  Harvesting,  storing,  and  market- 
ing —  shrinkage. 
(4)  Place  in  the  rotation. 

d.  Brief  study  of  main  varieties. 

Blue  Stem,  Fife,  Macaroni,  Fultz, 
Ruby,  Pearl's  Prolific,  Michigan, 
Amber,  etc. 

e.  Improvement  of  wheat,  seed  selection, 
preparation  of  ground,  etc.  f    * 

/.  Botanical  relations  —  why  a  grass? 

g.  Uses.  Products. 

h.  Grading  and  scoring  wheat. 

i.  Enemies  of  wheat. 

B.  Corn. 

a.  Brief  history. 

6.  Botanical  relations  —  why  a  grass? 

c.  Why  so  generally  grown.  Place  in  rota- 
tion. Feeding  value. 

d.  Selecting  and  testing  seed. 

e.  Cultivation. 

(1)  Soil    preparation  —  plant    foods 
necessary. 

(2)  Planting. 

(3)  Cultivating. 

(4)  Harvesting. 

/.  The  silo  and  its  use  in  corn  culture. 
g.  Care  of  seed  corn. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  41 

k.  Uses  of  corn  —  corn  products. 
i.  Study  of  a  few  types. 
j.  Methods  of  corn  improvement  —  seed 
selection  and  care,  ear  to  row  plots,  etc. 
k.  Judging  and  scoring  corn. 
C.  Oats,  barley,  rye,  and  other  cereals. 

Practical  Exercises 

A.  Wheat  and  oats. 

1.  Botanical  study  of  the  wheat  head  — 
spike,  spikelet,  glumes,  palea,  flowers,  etc. 

2.  Study  of  a  grain  of  wheat.  (See  texts  for 
outlines.) 

3.  Study  of  whole  wheat  plant,  root-sys- 
tem, stooling  habit,  leaves,  stem,  etc.   ^ 

4.  Purity  of  wheat. 

5.  Scoring  samples  of  wheat. 

6.  Judging  oats. 

7.  Treating  seed  oats  for  smut. 

8.  Testing  varieties  of  wheat  for  yields  on 
farm  plots. 

9.  Experiments  on  effect  of  size  of  seed.     \ 

B.  Corn. 

1.  Selecting  seed  corn  in  the  field. 

2.  Studies  of  the  whole  corn  plant.    (See 
texts  for  outlines.) 

3.  Outline  studies  of  corn  kernels.    (See 
texts  and  bulletins  for  outlines.)  Dissec- 
tion and  study  of  parts  of  the  kernel. 

4.  Outline  descriptions  of  ears  of  corn. 

5.  Judging  and  scoring  corn. 

6.  Methods  of  storing  and  caring  for  seed 
corn. 

7.  Testing  seed  corn  for  germination. 

8.  Testing  varieties  for  yield  on  farm  plots. 

9.  Organizations  of  local  corn  clubs. 


42         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Potatoes. 

a.  History,  value,  and  extent  of  the  crop. 

b.  Adaptability  of  the  State  in  the  way  of  soil 
and  climate. 

c.  Cultivation. 

(1)  Ploughing  —  depth;  spring  or  fall. 

(2)  Selection  of  seed  —  varieties. 

(3)  Planting  depth,  distance    apart,  size 
of  pieces,  etc.  Treatment  for  disease. 

(4)  After  cultivation  —  ridging  vs.  shallow. 

(5)  Harvesting,  storing,  and  marketing. 

(6)  Place  in  crop-rotation  system. 

(7)  Potato  pests  and  their  control. 

(a)  Insects  —  Colorado    beetle    and 

blister  beetle. 
(6)  Diseases  —  scab,  wart,  and  leaf 

blight. 

d.  Botanical  relations. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Treating  seed    potatoes    with    formalin  for 
scab. 

2.  Laboratory  studies  of  potato  tubers.    (See 
texts  for  outlines.)   Descriptions  of  tubers  as 
to  characteristic  points. 

8.  Experimental  plot  planting  to  test  yields  from 

various  methods  of  seeding  and  cultivation. 
4.  Judging  and  scoring  potatoes. 

3.  Meadows  and  pastures. 

A.  Legumes. 

a.  Identification    of    alfalfa,    red    clover, 
white  clover,  alsike  clover,  cow  peas, 
soy  beans,  vetch,  etc. 

b.  Botanical  relationships,  characteristics, 
etc. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  43 

C.  Cultivation. 

(1)  Preparation  of  soil. 

(2)  Seeding  —  nurse  crops  —  inocula- 
tion. 

(3)  When  to  cut  for  hay  and  seed  — 
curing  and  caring  for. 

d.  Feeding  values. 

e.  Effect  on  soil  conditions  —  addition  of 
humus,  nitrification,  nitrogen  fixation* 
etc. 

B.  Grasses. 

a.  Identification  and  description  of  tim- 
othy, blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  red  top, 
brome,  fescue,  millet,  etc. 

b.  Study   of  botanical   relationships   and 
general  basis  of  classification  of  grasses. 

C.  Uses  of  grasses  for  grain,  hay,  and  pas- 
ture. 

d.  Mixing  of  legumes  and  grasses  in  mea- 
dows and  pastures. 

6.  Permanent  pastures  —  how  to  main- 
1  tain.  —  keeping  weeds  cut  —  discing, 
re-seeding  and  top-dressing  old  mea- 
dows and  pastures. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Laboratory  studies  of  whole  legume  plants. 

Note  following:  Leaves,  arrangement, 
shape,  size,  amount;  leaflets,  number,  pal- 
mate, pinnate,  smooth,  or  hair;  stem,  round, 
square,  hairy  or  smooth,  stoloniferous  or  not; 
branching;  flowers,  place,  form,  color,  size; 
seed,  kind,  number,  size,  shape,  number  in 
each  pod,  etc.;  roots,  form,  size,  number, 
length;  note  nodules. 


44        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Testing  seeds  for  purity  and  for  per  cent  of 
germination. 

3.  Collection  of  grasses,  labeled  and  preserved 
in  herbarium. 

4.  Laying  out  and  sowing  alfalfa  plots. 
4.  Enemies  of  farm  crops. 

a.  Weeds. 

(1)  How  harmful.  ' 

(2)  How  disseminated  and  propagated. 

(3)  Classes  —  annual,  biennial  and  peren- 
,        nial. 

.  (4)  Identification  of  the  common  weeds  of 
the  region. 

(5)  Collection  and  identification  of  seeds  of 
these  weeds. 

(6)  General  methods  of  eradication. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Collecting  and  labeling  weeds  and  their 
1     seeds.  Keep  weed  seeds  in  small  vials 

and  hang  weed  collections  on  a  wire  in 
school  room. 

2.  Examining  clover  and  alfalfa  seeds  for 
weed  seeds. 

3.  Make  descriptive  sheets  of  weeds  as  fol- 
lows:—  height,  stem,  leaf,  seed,  flower, 
root,  habit  of  growth,  and  methods  of 
eradication. 

4.  Make  field  trips  to  collect  and  to  note 
the  above  points. 

5.  Send    for    Economic    Seed    Collection. 
$1.50,  Edgar  Brown,  Seed  Laboratory, 
Washington,  D.C. 

6.  Insects. 

(1)  Damages  done  to  farm  crops  by  insects; 
^  any  benefits. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  45 

(2)  Life  history  of  a  few  common  field  in- 
sects.    Chinch   bug,   cut-worm,   grub, 
Hessian  fly,  etc. 

(3)  Classify  as  to  methods  of  injuring. 

(4)  Methods  of  controlling. 

(a)  Destroy  breeding  places. 
(6)  Cultural  methods. 

(c)  Spraying.  j 

(d)  Special  devices. 

Practical  Exercises 

.  1.  Make  field  trips  to  see  work  of  injuri- 
ous insects.  Note  the  nature  of  the 
injury  and  how  the  insect  causes  it. 
Make  collections  on  all  trips. 

2.  Observations  of  life  history.  Each  stu- 
dent should  make  a  simple  insect  breed- 
ing cage  with  sand  box  and  lamp  chim- 
ney, and  work  out  the  life  history  of 
some  insect. 

8.  Make  laboratory  study  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  grasshopper  as  type  of  chewing 
insects,  and  of  the  squash  bug,  as  type 
of  sucking  insects. 

4.  Make  individual  collections  of  insects. 
Use  cyanide  bottle  for  killing  and   a 
cigar  box  for  holding  the  collection. 
C.  Plant  diseases. 

(1)  Bacterial  diseases. 

(2)  Fungous  diseases. 

(a)  Smuts  of  wheat,  oats,  and  corn. 
(6)  Rusts  and  wilts,  of  oats,  wheat, 

clover,  and  flax, 
(c)  Rots,  mildews,  scabs,  etc. 

(3)  Nature  of  these  diseases. 

(4)  Methods  of  controlling. 


46         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Make  a  laboratory  study  of  wheat,  oats,  or 
corn  smut.    Where  did  the  smut  attack  the 
plant?  How  is  the  smut  propagated?  Exam- 
ine spores  with  compound  microscope.  Draw. 

2.  Treat  wheat  or  oats  for  smut  with  formalin. 

3.  Make  collection  of  as  many  plant  diseases  as 
possible. 

5.  Harvesting  farm  crops. 

a.  Make  tables  of  actual  neighborhood  yields  of 
standard  farm  crops. 

b.  Make  tables  of  prices  of  farm  crops  for  the 
past  five  years. 

c.  Report  upon  methods  of  harvesting  various 

farm  crops. 

Animal  husbandry  in  the  high  school.  Animal  hus- 
bandry is  usually  given  in  the  high  school  as  a  gen- 
eral course  including  a  study  of  types  and  breeds  and 
the  care  and  management  of  domestic  animals.  The 
course  may  well  be  given  in  the  second  year  of  a  three- 
or  four-year  course  in  agriculture.  When  the  high- 
school  course  in  animal  husbandry  extends  through- 
out the  year,  the  first  semester  is  usually  a  general 
course  in  live-stock  study,  and  the  second  semester 
a  special  course  in  dairying,  poultry,  feeds  and  feed- 
ing, or  other  special  phases  of  animal  husbandry.  In 
some  instances  the  general  course  and  the  special 
course  run  parallel  on  alternating  days  throughout 
the  year.  The  emphasis  laid  upon  any  phase  of  ani- 
mal husbandry  will  vary  considerably  in  different 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  47 

localities,  depending  upon  the  live-stock  interests  of 
the  community. 

Various  outlines  for  secondary  courses  in  animal 
husbandry  have  been  printed  and  issued  by  many 
State  colleges  of  agriculture,  State  departments  of 
education,  and  by  high-school  instructors.  Valuable 
suggestions  may  be  obtained  from  most  of  them,  but 
in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  the  teacher  of 
agriculture  in  the  secondary  school  adopts  a  textbook, 
and  the  sequence  and  material  taken  up  in  the  book 
furnish  the  outline  as  well  as  the  principal  subject- 
matter  for  the  course.  Such  textbooks  as  Plumb's 
Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Harper's  Animal 
Husbandry  for  Schools,  and  others,  are  worth  more 
as  guides  to  the  teacher  than  all  the  outlines  pub- 
lished. A  good  teacher  will  supplement  the  text  by 
lectures  and  assigned  readings  in  bulletins  and  agri- 
cultural reference  books. 

Probably  the  greatest  needed  supplementary  help 
in  teaching  animal  husbandry  in  high  schools  are 
laboratory  manuals  giving  practical  exercises  in  gen- 
eral live-stock  study.  The  instructor  may  make  up  his 
own  list  of  laboratory  and  practical  exercises  by  ref- 
erence to  various  texts,  State  courses,  bulletins,  and 
circulars  of  the  States,  and  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

Much  of  the  material  equipment  for  the  animal 
husbandry  work  will  be  found  on  the  farms  of  the 
community.  Score  cards,  lantern  slides,  charts,  and 


48        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

models  of  farm  animals  are  valuable  equipments  to 
be  supplied  for  this  work.  In  many  cases  it  may  be 
practical  for  the  school  to  own  some  live-stock  for 
demonstration  purposes.  The  agricultural  library 
should  be  supplied  with  up-to-date  books  on  live- 
stock, and  the  school  should  receive  one  or  more  of 
the  best  live-stock  periodicals  for  use  by  the  students. 
'  The  animal-husbandry  work  of  the  high  school  lends 
itself  easily  to  home  projects,  boys'  and  girls'  club 
work,  and  other  extension  features  described  later  un- 
der these  phases  of  agricultural  teaching. 
f  A  suggestive  outline  for  a  year  of  animal  husban- 
dry in  high  school,  including  lists  of  practical  field 
and  laboratory  exercises  follows:  — 

COURSE  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit  —  First  or  second  year) 

Domestic  Animals  and  their  Products  —  General  course 

,  I.  Live-stock  on  the  farm  (one  week). 

1.  Values  of  live-stock  on  the  farm. 

2.  Advantages  of  live-stock  farming. 

8.  Disadvantages  of  live-stock  farming. 

4.  Number  and  value  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
swine  in  the  United  States. 

5.  Making  use  of  well-known  principles  of  heredity 
in  selecting  and  keeping  farm  animals. 

II.  The  horse  (four  weeks). 

1.  The  horse  an  indispensable  farm  animal. 

2.  The  development  of  the  modern  horse. 

3.  Types  and  breeds  of  horses.  Some  horse  history. 
Brief  history  of  famous  horses. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


49 


4.  External  anatomy  of  the  horse. 

5.  Judging  horses. 

6.  Brief  study  of  a  few  pedigrees.  ' 

7.  General  principles  of  horse  feeding,  using  only 
common  terms. 

8.  Management  and  care  of  horses. 

a.  Care  of  mare  and  foal. 

b.  Stabling  of  horses. 

c.  Common  diseases  of  horses.  * 

d.  Points  in  good  horsemanship. 

e.  Proper  manners  of  the  road. 

Practical  Exercises  ' 

1.  Student  records,  keeping  "  tab  "  of  the  character- 
istics of  individual  animals  on  the  home  farm,  as 
to  performance,  pedigree,  etc. 

2.  Report  on  experience  or  observations  in  horse  in- 
telligence. 

3.  Reports  of  home  horses. 


Breed 

Color 

Weight 

Height 

Condition 

Number 

4.  Lesson  pointing  out  names  of  external  parts  of  a 
horse. 

5.  Use  of  score  cards.  Comparative  judging. 

6.  Sketch  diagram  of  horse,  writing  in  names  of 
parts. 

7.  Draw  plans  for  horse  barns. 

8.  Practical  work  in  harnessing  and  handling  horses. 

9.  Observe  some  horse  diseases  and  their  treatment 
if  possible.    (Ask  the  cooperation  of  a  local  vet- 
erinarian in  some  of  this  work.) 


BO        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

HI.  Feeds  and  feeding  (two  weeks). 

1.  Use  of  feeds  eaten  by  animals. 

2.  Classification  of  feeds  according  to  bulk,   method 
of  harvesting,  and  composition. 

3.  Function  of  the  different  food  materials  —  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates,  and  fat;  also  water  and  ash. 

4.  Digestibility  of  feeds;  methods  of  determining. 

5.  Food  requirements  of  animals  —  balancing  ra- 
tions. 

6.  Balancing  rations  for  horses  of  different  ages,  us- 
ing various  combinations  of  feeds. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Determining  weight  of  one  quart  of  com,  oats, 
'       bran,  etc. 

2.  Determine  size  of  a  forkful  of  hay  that  will  aver- 
age five  pounds. 

3.  Report  on  methods  of  feeding  horses  at  home. 
Work  out  nutritive  ratio  of  these  rations  used  at 
home. 

4.  Suggestions  as  to  ways  of  improving  home  ra- 
tions. 

IV.  .Cattle  (four  weeks). 

1.  Cattle  and  their  wild  relatives.  History  of  present 
domestic  cattle. 

2.  Types  and  breeds  of  cattle,  beef  and  dairy,  breed 
characteristics.. 

3.  Points  in  judging  beef  cattle. 

4.  Market  classes  and  grades  of  beef  cattle.  See  mar- 
ket reports. 

5.  Feeding    beef    cattle  —  some    good    rations    as 
worked  out  by  our  experiment  stations  and  suc- 
cessful  feeders.     Aim  in   feeding   as   compared 
with  that  in  feeding  dairy  cattle.    Silage  and  its 
uses. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  61 

6.  Management  of  beef  cattle. 

a.  Care  of  breeding  herd. 

b.  Care  of  calves. 

c.  Housing  of  beef  cattle. 

d.  The  pure-bred  cattle  business. 

7.  Different  cuts  of  meat;  their  location  in  the  car- 
cass and  value  for  food. 

8.  Breeds  of  dairy  cattle. 

9.  Points  in  judging  dairy  cattle. 

10.  Feeding  dairy  cattle.  Good  rations. 

11.  Management  of  dairy  cattle. 

a.  Care  of  herd. 

b.  Testing  milk. 

c.  Care  and  handling  of  calves. 

12.  Dairy  products,  care  and  production  of.    Com- 
position of  milk. 

13.  Some  common  cattle  diseases. 

Practical  Exercises 
1.  Reports  on  home  beef  cattle. 


Breeds 

Number 

Average  Weight 

Market  Value 

2.  Explanation  before  chart  or  animal  of  points  in 
judging  beef  cattle,  drill  in  naming  external 
parts. 

8.  Judging  exercises. 

4.  Reports  on  market  quotations  from  daily  papers 
of  classes  and  market  grades. 

5.  Visit  to  farms  where  cattle  are  kept. 

6.  Estimate  the  cost  and  profit  of  buying  a  carload 
of  cattle  at  Chicago,  feeding  130  days  and  ship- 
ping back. 


52        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

7.  Report  on  home  dairy  cattle. 


Breeds 

Number 

Average  Daily 
Milk  Yield 

Per  Cent  of 
Butter-Fat 

Selling 
Value 

8.  Observational  study  of  points  in  judging  a  dairy 
cow. 

9.  Sketching  diagram  of  a  cow  and  writing  in  the 
drawing  the  name  of  parts  in  the  external  ana- 
tomy. 

10.  The  use  of  score  card. 

11.  Keeping  daily  milk  records  of  home  cows. 


r     Name  of  Cow 

Morning 
Pounds 

Evening 
Pounds 

Total 

12.  Use  of  Babcock  test.  Testing  of  individual  cows. 

13.  Determining  nutritive  ratio  and  balanced  ration 
for  beef  and  dairy  cattle. 

14.  Reports  on  home  methods  of  cattle  feeding. 

15.  Making  up  feeding  standards. 

16.  Each  student  prepare  written  report,  giving  de- 
tailed history  of  one  breed  of  cattle. 

17.  Visit  to  local  creamery. 
V.  Sheep  (two  weeks). 

1.  Some  sheep  history. 

2.  Sheep  as  farm  animals.  Market  classes  and  grades. 
(See  market  reports  in  daily  papers.) 

3.  Extent  and  value  of  the  sheep  industry. 

4.  Types  and  breeds  of  sheep. 

5.  Points  in  judging  sheep. 

6.  Feeding  of  Western  sheep  for  the  markets. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


7.  Care  and  feeding  of  sheep.  Care  of  breeding  flock. 
Feeds  for  breeding  ewes. 

8.  Care  of  lambs.  Production  of  early  lambs. 

9.  Shelter  for  sheep. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Tabulate  statistical  studies  from  the    Yearbook 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  of  the  sheep 
and  wool  industries,  comparing  our  State  with  the 
leading  States  in  the  industry. 

2.  Report  from  the  daily  news,  the  market  quota- 
tions on  sheep,  Iambs,  and  wool. 

3.  Make  written  reports  from  reference  studies  on 
the  wild  relatives  of  sheep. 

4.  Report  on  the  home  or  a  neighbor's  flock. 


Breeds 

Number  of  Sheep 

Distinguishing 
Characteristics 

Average  Annual 
Income 

5.  Study  of  external  parts  of  a  sheep's  body,  and  use 
of  the  score  card  in  a  few  judging  exercises. 

6.  Reports  on  some  sheep  habits. 

7.  Some  practical  problems,  such  as:  Buy  a  car  of 
Western  feeders  at  Chicago.   Feed  them  for  one 
hundred  days  according  to  good  standards  of  feed- 
ing. Figure  profit  at  current  prices. 

8.  Visit  farms  where  sheep  are  being  sheared. 
VI.  Swine  (two  weeks). 

1.  Some  swine  history. 

2.  Market  types  and  breeds  of  swine. 

3.  Points  in  judging  swine. 

4.  Feeding  and  management  of  swine.    Some  good 
rations  for  swine.    Housing  and  caring  for  swine. 
Treatment  of  cholera. 


£4         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Study  of  hog  markets  from  stock  papers. 

6.  Cuts  of  pork  and  methods  of  butchering. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Reports  on  wild  relatives  of  swine.' 

2.  Tabulation  of  home  reports. 


Breeds 

Number 

Characteristics 

Average 
Weight 

Value 

3.  Daily  market  quotations  and  sales. 

4  Home  methods  of  feeding  and  managing  swine. 
Valuation  of  home  herds. 

5  Practical  feeding  and  weight  records  made  upon 
a  home  animal  by  students. 

6.  Problem:  Buy  five  sows,  two  weeks  before  far- 
rowing. Fatten  both  pigs  and  sows  after  weaning 
pigs.   Compute  expected  profit,  giving  all  details 
of  cost  and  selling  prices. 

7.  Visit  local  slaughter-houses. 
VII.  Poultry  (two  weeks). 

1  Types  and  breeds  of  poultry.    How  to  ^improve 
and  fix  desirable  strains. 

2.  Points  of  excellence  in  various  breeds. 

3.  Care  and  feeding  of  poultry. 

a.  Laying  hens. 

b.  Fattening  stock. 

c.  Chicks. 

4.  Housing  of  poultry. 

5.  Hatching  and  rearing. 

a.  Incubators  and  breeders. 
6.  Hens. 

6.  Poultry  raising  as  a  business  in  this  State. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICTJLTUEE  55 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Laboratory  studies  of  the  feather  and  the  egg. 

2.  Home  reports  on  poultry: 


Breeds 

Number  of  Fowls 

Characteristics 

Profitableness 

3.  Keeping  of  feeding  and  egg  records  of  given  flocks 
at  home  for  a  given  time.  Determining  the  layers 
by  use  of  trap  nests. 

4.  Plans  of  poultry  houses  and  pens  drawn. 

6.  Practical  use  of  incubators  at  home  or  school. 

6.  Comparative  studies  of  types  with  specimen  in 
hand. 

7.  If  possible,  keep  half-dozen  or  more  hens  at  school 
building  and  run  experiment  in  feeding  and  egg 
production  according  to  good  authorities. 

Lesson  Plan 

Title:  Some  Values  of  Good  Live-Stock  on  the  Farm. 
Aim :  To  give  some  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  values 
of  good  live-stock  on  the  farm. 

(Classroom  recitation,  using  questions,  statements,  and 
discussions  inductively  to  develop  the  aim  as  stated  above.) 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 
I.  Introduction. 

"  Every  boy  with  good  red  blood  in  his  veins  loves 
to  associate  with  farm  animals."  The  farmer  boy 
has  a  chance  to  see,  know,  and  enjoy  the  life  in  the 
country.  "  How  many  have  enjoyed  the  compan- 
ionship of  a  farm  animal?  "  (Almost  all.)  Besides 
this  value  which  every  country  boy  appreciates,  we 
must  learn  other  values  of  farm  animals  to  the 
farmer  and  his  farm. 


56         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

II.  Presentation. 

A.  Through  questions  and  leading  statements,  the 
following  facts  brought  out  by  the  students,  with- 
out being  told:  — 

Farm  ft.nimfl.1a, 

1.  Provide  food  and  clothing. 

2.  Help  to  maintain  soil   fertility  through 
the  return  of  manure  to  the  land. 

3.  Utilize  much  of  the  waste  material  on  the 
farm. 

4.  Perform  necessary  farm  labor. 

5.  Make  possible  farmhand  labor  all  the  year 
round. 

B.  If  all  these  values  result  from  farm  annuals,  does 
it  make  any  difference  whether  the  animals  are 
pure-bred  or  "  scrubs  "  as  to  the  extent  of  the 
values  we  have  stated? 

1.  The  story  of  "  Gold  and  Gilt."    (See  Eli- 
nois  Extension  Circular  No.  1.) 

2.  The  story  of  the  difference  between  the  two 
cows  is  given  as  an  example  of  a  general 
truth  for  all  farm  animals,  —  that  good  farm 
animals  are  more  profitable  than  "  scrubs." 

3.  How  can  the  farmer  profit  by  this  example? 
III.  Conclusions. 

Summarize  statement  of  facts  and  principles  learned. 

Horticulture  in  the  high  school.  The  high-school 
course  in  horticulture  should  consist  of  at  least  one 
hah*  unit  and  be  given  preferably  during  the  second 
semester  of  the  first  year  of  the  agricultural  course. 
When  general  science  is  given  the  first  year  of  the 
high-school  course,  the  agricultural  work  may  well 
follow  during  the  sophomore  year,  offering  agronomy 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  57 

the  first  semester  and  horticulture  the  second  semes- 
ter, thus  giving  the  year  to  the  plant  industries. 

It  will  be  an  exceptional  community  that  could  not 
profit  by  a  semester's  study  of  horticulture.  The  prop- 
agation of  plants,  the  planting  and  care  of  fruit  trees, 
the  raising  of  a  vegetable  garden,  the  beautifying  of 
home  grounds,  are  phases  of  horticulture  that  are 
practical,  and  usually  needed  in  all  sections  of  the 
country,  in  urban  as  well  as  rural  communities.  If 
the  community  is  one  especially  well  adapted  to  hor- 
ticultural pursuit,  a  second  semester  may  be  given  to 
a  study  of  special  phases  of  horticulture  such  as  vege- 
table gardening,  landscape  gardening,  small  fruits, 
tree  fruits,  forestry,  etc.  This  one  hah*  unit  should  be 
offered  among  the  elective  courses  in  the  senior  year. 

Horticultural  subjects  lend  themselves  to  school 
work  as  well  if  not  better  than  most  phases  of  agricul- 
ture. Like  agronomy,  horticulture  is  a  good  intro- 
ductory course,  since  it  deals  with  many  phases  of 
agricultural  science.  There  is  plant  propagation,  fruit- 
growing, vegetable  gardening,  floriculture,  landscape 
gardening,  viticulture,  forestry,  entomology,  plant 
pathology,  soil  problems,  marketing  problems,  etc., 
all  included  in  "a  general  course  in  horticulture,  and 
this,  together  with  a  semester's  work  in  agronomy, 
recommended  for  the  first  year  of  agriculture,  con- 
stitutes a  unit  of  plant  industry  making  an  excellent 
first  year's  work  in  agriculture  for  the  high  school. 

A  half  unit  of  horticulture,  beginning  in  the  second 


58         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

semester,  may  follow  the  seasonal  sequence  of  spring 
operations,  and  make  a  very  interesting  and  practical 
general  course.  A  few  days  given  to  the  study  of  farm 
forestry  in  February,  followed  by  tree  fruits,  prun- 
ing and  spraying,  plant  propagation,  vegetable  and 
landscape  gardening,  during  March,  April,  and  May, 
will  outline  the  work  in  general  horticulture  in  good 
seasonal  sequence. 

The  materials  included  in  the  horticultural  course 
will  vary  in  different  sections,  but  in  the  main  the 
larger  topics  mentioned  above  would  be  included.  In 
any  case  the  number  and  kinds  of  fruits,  vegetables, 
or  other  horticultural  plants  will  be  selected  with  ref- 
erence to  the  local  needs  and  the  time  at  the  school's 
disposal.  The  greater  emphasis  in  most  schools  teach- 
ing horticulture  will  be  placed  upon  fruit-growing 
and  vegetable  gardening.  These  courses  can  be  taught 
effectively  in  the  high  school. 

There  is  a  splendid  opportunity  for  varied,  useful, 
and  interesting  laboratory  and  field  work  in  connec- 
tion with  a  course  in  horticulture.  Probably  one  half 
of  the  class  time  should  be  given  to  laboratory  and 
field  work.  Many  phases  of  horticulture  admit  of  the 
home  project  method  of  practical  work.  Planting  a 
catalpa  grove,  setting  out  a  young  orchard,  rejuvenat- 
ing an  old  orchard,  beautifying  home  grounds,  grow- 
ing strawberries,  growing  a  garden,  growing  flowers, 
or  any  single  vegetable  or  fruit  on  a  large  scale,  are 
examples  of  horticultural  projects  that  may  be  car- 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  59 

ried  on  at  the  home  grounds.  The  use  of  the  school 
grounds  has  been  discussed  in  another  chapter,  in 
which  suggestions  for  horticultural  work  are  given. 

Field  trips  to  nurseries  to  inspect  stock,  to  orchards 
to  note  pruning,  spraying,  and  cultivation  methods, 
to  vineyards,  to  packing-houses,  to  public  markets, 
and  to  canning-factories  should  be  made  whenever 
possible.  All  excursions  should  be  well  planned,  and 
definite  requirements  made  for  each  individual  as  to 
observations,  note-taking,  and  collections. 

Equipment  for  work  in  horticulture  should,  if  pos- 
sible, include  a  greenhouse.  There  should  be  flats, 
flower  pots,  soil  sieves,  and  other  needed  tools  such 
as  grafting  and  budding  knives,  pruning  knives  and 
saws,  illustrative  material  used  in  spraying,  a  barrel 
spray  pump  mounted  on  wheels,  fruit  packs,  garden 
tools,  etc.;  in  fact  the  equipment  for  horticulture  in 
school  should  be  practically  the  same  as  that  for  the 
business  in  a  successful  way  on  the  farm. 

The  agricultural  library  should  contain  all  the  avail- 
able circulars  and  bulletins  from  the  United  States 
Department  and  from  the  State  College  of  Agricul- 
ture. Good  horticultural  journals  and  books  should 
also  be  provided  for  the  students'  reference. 

Horticulture  offers  an  excellent  field  for  community 
extension  service.  Illustrated  lectures,  public  demon- 
strations of  pruning  and  spraying,  fruit  and  vege- 
table exhibits,  arbor  and  horticultural  day  at  school, 
and  boys'  and  girls'  club  work  are  some  activities  in 


60        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

which  horticulture  may  serve  in  community  exten- 
sion work. 

The  following  course  of  study  including  practical 
exercises  suggested  outlines  a  half  unit  of  work  in  gen- 
eral horticulture. 

COURSE  IN  GENERAL  HORTICULTURE 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit  —  First  or  second  year) 

Forest,  Orchard,  and  Garden 

I.  The  Forest  —  a  farm  crop. 

1.  Principles  of  general  forestry. 

a.  Life  history  of  trees,  with  studies  of  struc- 
ture, nutrition  and  growth. 

b.  Influences  which  affect  tree  growth,  such  as 
temperature,  moisture,  soil,  light,  other  trees, 
etc. 

c.  Studies  of  the  principal  tree  species  of  the 
community.   (See  table  in  Practical  Exer- 
cises.) 

d.  The  forest  as  a  tree  society,  the  struggle  for 
existence,  and  its  effect  upon  development  of 
trees. 

e.  Enemies  of  forest  —  fires,  insects,  diseases, 
bad  lumbering,  etc. 

/.  Influence  of  forests  on  climate,  water  supply. 

stream  flow,  and  soil. 
g.  The  United  States  Forest  Service  and  its 

work. 

2.  The  farm  woodlot. 

a.  The  relation  and  importance  of  the  woodlot 
to  the  farm. 

b.  Origin,  condition,  and  extent  of  farm  wood- 
lots. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 


61 


c.  Trees    as    farm    crops  —  comparison    with 
other  agricultural  crops. 

d.  Methods  of  measuring  the  wood  crops,  both 
in  standing  timber  and  in  logs. 

e.  Woodlot  management;  how  and  when  to  cut 

trees;  what  trees  to  remove  and  what  to 
leave;  methods  of  improving  the  woodlot; 
market  lumber;  tree  planting  on  the  farm; 
protecting  the  farm  woodlot. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Reports  of  acreage  in  woodlots  on  home  farms. 

2.  Observational  studies  of  trees. 


Name  of 
Tree 

Size  and 
Form 

Location 

Condition 
of  Tree 

How  I  Know 
the  Tree 

3.  Practical  studies  of  given  woodlots,  made  in  the 
forest,  using  the  following  outline:  — 

o.  Census  Table  —  showing  names  of  species, 
I        diameters  and  number  of  trees. 
6.  Species  predominating. 

c.  Age  of  forest  and  type  of  trees. 

d.  Density  and  condition  of  the  stand. 

e.  Protection  given. 
/.  Market  facilities. 

g.  General  forest  condition,  nature  of  canopy, 

wood  mass  and  floor. 
h.  Suggestions  for  improvement. 

4.  Excursion  to  make  forest  measurements. 

Lay  off  given  areas  and  estimate  board  feet  of 
standing  timber,  by  standard  log  rules. 

5.  Excursion  to  make  and  study  woodlot  improve- 


62         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

ments.   Mark  trees  to  be  removed,  cleanings  to 
make,  etc. 

6.  Planting  of  forest  nurseries  on  the  school  grounds. 
II.  The  orchard. 

1.  Locating  and  laying  out  the  orchard. 

2.  Preparation  of  the  ground. 

3.  Selection  of  nursery  stock. 

4.  Planting  the  orchard. 

a.  Preparation  of  trees  for  planting. 
6.  Setting  the  trees. 
c.  Care  of  young  trees. 
6.  Pruning. 

a.  Purposes  and  principles  of  pruning. 
6.  Pruning  young  and  old  trees. 
c.  Pruning  shrubs  and  shade  trees. 

6.  Grafting. 

a.  Purposes  and  principles  of  grafting. 

b.  Root  and  crown  grafting. 

c.  Top-working  fruit  trees. 

d.  Budding  young  fruit  trees. 

7.  Spraying. 

a.  Common  insects  and  diseases. 
6.  Spraying  materials. 

c.  Making  spray  mixtures. 

d.  Spraying  for  codling  moth  and  other  chew- 
ing insects,  and  for  leaf  diseases. 

e.  Spraying  for  San  Jose  Scale  and  other  suck- 
ing insects. 

8.  Cultivating  orchards.  Renovating  old  orchards. 

9.  Picking,  marketing,  and  storing  fruit. 
10.  Variety  studies,  judging,  etc. 

Practiced  Exercises 

1.  Laying  out  an  orchard  on  an  acre  plot. 

2.  Examination  of  nursery  stock;  pruning  roots,  and 
forming  tops  of  young  trees. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  63 

3.  Planting  fruit  trees  —  starting  a  school  nursery 
of  apple  and  peach  trees. 

4.  Pruning  practice  on  old  apple  trees. 

5.  Practice  in  various  methods  of  grafting. 

6.  Spraying  demonstrations. 

7.  Scoring  plates  of  apples  by  use  of  standard  score 
cards. 

8.  Practice  in  packing  apples. 
HI.  The  garden. 

1.  Locating,  planning,  and  laying  out  the  garden. 

2.  Preparation  of  garden  land. 

3.  Selection  of  varieties  and  planting. 

4.  Transplanting  and  thinning. 

5.  Forcing  garden  vegetables. 

6.  Climate,  soil,  and  cultural  requirements  of  stan- 
dard garden  vegetables. 

7.  Combating  weeds  and  garden  pests. 

8.  Small  fruits  in  the  garden. 

9.  Growing  flowers  and  ornamental  plants. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Plotting  on  paper  plans  for  home  and  school  gar- 
dens. 

2.  Laying  out  and  planting  a  school  garden. 

3.  Making  a  hotbed  or  cold  frame  and  planting  it. 

4.  Special  problems  or  verifications  to  be  worked  out 
by  each  student  or  group  of  students  in  home  gar- 
den or  at  school. 

a.  Variety  tests. 

b.  Tomato  culture  —  various  systems. 

c.  Methods  in  potato  culture. 

d.  Spraying    tests    on    potatoes,    tomatoes, 
melons,  etc. 

e.  Results  of  various  fertilizers. 
/.  Hill  and  level  culture  tests. 


64         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

g.  Deep  and  shallow  planting  tests. 
h.  Deep  and  shallow  cultivation  tests. 
i.  Yielding  results. 

5.  Preparation  of  tables,  showing  cultural  require- 
ments of  vegetables. 


Vegetables 

Soil  Requirements 

Season  Re- 
quirements 

Care  Re- 
quirements 

6.  Keeping  of  a  garden  diary,  recording  work  done, 
observations  made,  and  results  obtained  in  garden 
practice  from  day  to  day. 

Special  elective  courses  in  agriculture  for  one  half 
unit  credit  for  junior  or  senior  year.  Following  the 
courses  in  plant  industry,  which  includes  agronomy 
and  horticulture,  and  the  courses  in  animal  hus- 
bandry, —  the  two  major  groups  of  agricultural 
studies  making  up  two  units  of  high  school  work,  — 
there  may  be  offered  several  elective  courses  of  one 
half  unit  weight  in  the  junior  and  senior  years.  Such 
courses  would  include  Soils,  The  Farm  Physical  Plant 
or  Farm  Engineering,  Farm  Management,  Improve- 
ment of  Plants  and  Animals,  Poultry  Husbandry, 
Dairy  Husbandry,  Vegetable  Gardening,  and  other 
special  phases  of  plant  industry  or  animal  husbandry 
which  the  needs  of  the  local  communities  may  demand, 
and  the  school  is  able  to  offer. 

A  study  made  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Dadisman,  of  the  Cali- 
fornia State  College  of  Agriculture  in  1917,  shows  that 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  65 

farm  mechanics  is  an  unsettled  course,  and  that  many 
changes  and  much  shifting  of  places  in  the  curricu- 
lum are  seen  in  connection  with  this  subject  among 
the  schools  of  the  country.  It  seems  to  be  finding  a 
settled  place  in  the  third  and  fourth  year.  Farm  man- 
agement is  strictly  a  fourth-year  subject.  The  newer 
courses  are  providing  a  hah*  unit  of  special  soil  work 
in  the  third  and  fourth  years.  Mr.  Dadisman  reports 
that  animal  husbandry  is  popular  as  a  second-year 
study  in  the  Western  States,  while  in  the  Middle  and 
Eastern  States  it  is  found  commonly  in  the  fourth 
year. 

The  Committee  on  Agriculture  for  the  National 
Education  Association  has  recommended  that  such 
courses  as  Farm  Mechanics,  Rural  Engineering,  Farm 
Management,  and  special  courses  in  plant  and  animal 
studies  be  offered  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  of 
agricultural  courses.  The  following  outlines  of  special 
courses  will  suggest  the  nature  of  the  work  included 
under  half -unit  credits  for  Soils,  Farm  Physical  Plant, 
Farm  Management,  and  Improvement  of  Plants  and 
Animals,  Poultry  Husbandry,  Dairy  Husbandry,  and 
Vegetable  Gardening.  In  all  cases  a  good  text  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  and  the  work  as  outlined 
by  the  text  supplemented  by  bulletins,  reference  read- 
ing, field  trips,  and  laboratory  work  as  good  teachers 
will  be  able  to  do. 


6        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

SOILS 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit  —  Third  or  fourth  year) 

Soils  and  Crop  Production 
I.  Soils. 

1.  Soil  physics. 

a.  Nature,  composition,  origin,  and  function  of 

soils. 
6.  Texture,  structure,  etc. 

c.  Classes  according  to  size  of  particle  and  com- 
position; sand,  clay,  loam,  silt,  peat,  etc. 

d.  Capillarity,  solution  and  osmosis  in  relation 
to  soils  and  plants. 

e.  Soil  water. 

(1)  Function  of  soil  water. 

(2)  Three  forms  of  soil  water. 

(3)  Control  of  soil  water. 

(a)  Increasing  water  content  —  by 
decreasing  percolation  and  evap- 
oration —  by  increasing  capacity. 

(&)  Decreasing  soil  water  —  drain- 
age —  effects  of  drainage. 

(c)  Irrigation  and  dry  fanning. 
/.  Soil  air. 

(1)  Function  of  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  car- 
bon. 

(2)  Movements  of  soil  air. 

(3)  Control  of  soil  air  —  tillage,  drainage, 
etc. 

g.  Soil  temperature. 

(1)  Effects  of  soil  heat  upon  germination, 
growth,  soil  organisms,  etc. 

(2)  Things  affecting  soil  heat — color,  slope, 
water  content,  aeration,  humus  content. 

(3)  Effects  of  freezing  and  thawing. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  67 

h.  Active  organic  matter  in  soil.    (Sometimes 
called  humus.) 

(1)  Function  of  organic  matter  —  effect  on 
water  content,  inorganic  foods,  soil 
organisms,  texture,  etc. 

(2)  Control    of    organic    content  —  crop 
residue,  manures,  crop  rotation. 

».  Cultivation  of  soil. 

(1)  Function  of  cultivation  — 

effect  on  physical  condition,  wet  and 

dry. 

effect  on  moisture,  air  and  heat, 
effect  on  soil  organisms, 
effect  on  plant  foods  and  growth, 
effect  on  weeds  and  other  pests. 

(2)  Tools  of  cultivation. 
j.  Soil  organisms. 

(1)  Function  of  soil  bacteria. 

(2)  Conditions  affecting  growth. 

(3)  Nitrification  and  dentrification. 
k.  Effects  of  lime  on  soils. 

2.  Soil  fertility. 

a.  Elements  of  plant  food  necessary  to  plant 

growth. 
6.  Relative  amounts  of  these  for  crop  growth. 

c.  Relative  amounts  in  normal  soils. 

d.  Plant  foods  likely  to  become  deficient. 

e.  Ways  in  which  plant  food  is  lost  to  the  soil 
—  cropping,  erosion,  and  leaching. 

/.  Sources  of  elements  likely  to  become  deficient. 

(1)  Crop  residues. 

(2)  Barn  yard  manures. 

(3)  Legumes. 

(4)  Humus  and  its  relation  to  soil  fertil- 
\  ity. 


68        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

(5)  Commercial  fertility. 

(a)  Nitrogen  — 

vegetable  —  legumes,  air  nitro- 
gen. 

animal  —  dried  blood,  tankage. 

mineral  —  Chili  saltpeter,  am- 
monia sulphate. 
(6)  Phosphorus  — 

animal  —  raw  bone,  steam  bone. 

mineral  —  rock  phosphate,  acid 

phosphate,  phosphatic  slag, 
(c)  Potassium  — 

German  mines,  Kainit. 

Potassium  sulphate  and  chlo- 
ride. 

Wood  ashes. 

(6)  Cost  of  these  elements.  How  to  use  in 
a  system  of  permanent  soil  fertility. 

(7)  Complete  fertilizers. 

(a)  Composition. 

(6)  Advisability  of  use  in  general 

farming, 
(c)  Advisability  of  use  in  intensive 

farming. 
G/)  Home  mixing  of  fertilizers. 

3.  Soil  management. 

a.  Crop  rotation. 

(1)  In  respect  to  physical  effects. 

(2)  In  respect  to  plant  food,  farm  labor, 
weeds,  insects,  plant  diseases,  etc. 

6.  Use  of  limestone,  phosphorus,  legumes,  drain- 
age, etc.,  in  systems  of  permanent  soil  fer- 
tility. 

4.  National  Soil  Fertility  League  —  its  plans  and 
purposes. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  69 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Field  trip  to  study  formation  of  soils  by  weather- 
ing, by  plant  action,  by  animals,  etc. 

2.  Dig  up  and  observe  character  and  depth  of  surface 
soil,  sub-surface  and  sub-soil. 

3.  Physical  examination  of  soils.    Pulverize  sand, 
loam,  and  clay;  sift  in  sieve,  and  examine  with 
lenses,  noting  size  of  particles,  color,  grittiness,  and 
composition.  Tabulate  comparisons. 

4.  Taking  soil  samples  with  soil  auger,  of  surface 
soil,  sub-surface  and  sub-soil,  cover  in  air-tight 
fruit  cans  and  take  to  the  laboratory  for  further 
study. 

5.  Determination  of  hygroscopic  water.  Use  air-dry 
samples  obtained  above.  ,. 

6.  Determination  of  capillary  water  hi  soils  taken 
above.    (See  texts.) 

7.  Determination  of  volume,  weight,  and  apparent 
specific  gravity  of  soils. 

8.  Capillary  rise  of  water  demonstrations. 

9.  Verify  powers  of  different  soils  to  hold  water. 

10.  Determination  of  the  rate  of  percolation  of  water 
through  soils. 

11.  Effect  of  organic  matter  on  retention  of  water. 

12.  Effect  of  cultivation  and  mulching  on  evaporation 
from  soils. 

13.  Effects  of  lime  on  physical  conditions  of  soils 
demonstrated. 

14.  Gross  determination  of  the  per  cent  of  water,  or- 
ganic matter,  and  mineral  matter  in  samples  of 
soils. 

15.  Observation  study  of  as  many  of  the  ten  ele- 
ments of  plant  food  as  possible. 

16.  Preparation  of  plant  food  solutions  to  be  used 
in  pot  cultures. 


70         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

17.  Pot  cultures  of  pure  sand  and  plant  food  solu- 
tions. 

18.  Pot  cultures  of  soils  of  the  community  to  study 
limiting  plant  food  elements. 

19.  Testing  soils  for  acid  conditions,  with  litmus  paper. 

20.  Soil  drainage  demonstrations. 

21.  Outdoor  plot  experiments  with  various  fertilizers 
and  methods  of  soil  management. 

II.  Crop  production. 

1.  Review  methods  of  seeding  of  the  various  farm 
crops. 

a.  Seed  selection. 

6.  Seed  bed  preparation. 

c.  Amount  of  seed  and  depth  of  planting. 

2.  Cultivation  and  tillage. 

a.  Breaking  the  ground  for  crops. 
6.  Purposes  of  tillage.  * 

c.  Shallow  vs.  deep  cultivation. 

d.  The  maintenance  of  the  soil  mulch. 
8.  Growth  of  plants. 

a.  Factors  influencing  the  growth  of  plants. 

b.  Trace  the  life  history  of  a  corn  plant. 

;.   c.  Rate  of  growth,  determined  by  nature  of 
plant,  environment,  quality  of  seed,  etc. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Germinate  in  pots  or  window  boxes,  wheat,  oats, 
corn,  potatoes,  etc.,  in  order  to  have  material  for 
root  and  whole  plant  studies. 

2.  Field  trip  to  study  growing  crops  —  report  pos- 
sible causes  of  success  or  failure  in  the  growth  of 
crops  observed. 

8.  Select  specimen  of  growing  corn  and  make  daily 
[       records  of  rate  of  growth  and  tabulate  results. 
4.  Encourage  each  student  to  grow  some  field  crop 
of  his  own  during  the  summer. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  71 

THE  FARM  PHYSICAL  PLANT 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit) 

Farm  Mechanics 

I.  Cement  construction. 

1.  Principles  of  construction  in  making  blocks,  fence 
posts,  walks,  tanks,  floors,  small  bridges,  silos;  re- 
inforcement in  concrete  structures. 

2.  Growing  use  of  cement  in  farm  mechanics. 
II.  Drainage. 

1.  Location  of  tiles  and  sewer  drains. 

2.  Leveling  for  drains,  digging  the  ditch  and  finish- 
ing the  bottom. 

3.  Laying  tile  and  sewer  pipe. 

4.  Various  systems  of  field  drainage,  and  cost  of 
drainage. 

5.  Nature  of  infectious  diseases,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  those  carried  by  water;  source  and  supply 
of  pure  water  on  the  farm. 

6.  Sanitary  drainage  and  house  water  supply. 
IH.  Farm  machinery. 

1.  General  care  of  farm  machinery. 

a.  Cost  of  shedding  as  compared  to  waste  due 

to  weathering. 
6.  Oiling,  cleaning,  and  sheltering  machinery. 

2.  Detail  study  of  the  plough. 

a.  Laws  of  machinery  as  applied  to  the  plough. 

b.  Name  parts  and  give  function  of  each. 

c.  Take  down  and  set  up  a  plough. 

d.  Adjustment  of  plough  for  deep  or  shallow 
ploughing,  and  for  wide  or  narrow  furrow. 

e.  How  to  handle  the  plough  to  regulate  width 
and  depth  of  furrows. 

/.  Various  types  of  ploughs. 
g.  Some  plough  history. 


72        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

S.  The  mower  and  self-binder  —  their  proper  care 
and  operation. 

4.  List  and  describe  various  cultivating  tools. 

5.  List  and  describe  various  harvesting  tools. 

6.  The  small  gasoline  engine  —  principles  of  its  con- 
struction, and  its  various  applications  in  farm 
mechanics. 

IV.  The  farmstead. 

1.  Comparative  studies  in  designs  for  farm  buildings, 

especially  houses  and  barns. 

,  2.  Equipment  of  houses  and  barns  with  heat,  light, 
motor  power,  water  pressure,  ventilating  devices, 
and  other  machinery. 

3.  Some  simple  principles  of  woodwork  in  farm  re- 
pairs. 

4.  Surveying,  mapping,  and  describing  farm  fields 
and  home  grounds. 

Practiced  Exercises 

1.  Making  of  trial  cement  blocks  with  different  pro- 
portions of  sand.  Practice  in  cement  walk  con- 
struction. 

,  2.  Practical  exercises  in  surveying  for  tile  ditches  and 
in  laying  tile. 

3.  Taking  down  and  setting  up  different  farm  ma- 
chinery. 

4.  Forge  work  in  easy  repairing,  sharpening  plough 
shares,  sickles,  etc.,  and  in  welding. 

5.  Practice  in  simple  carpenter  work  needed  on  the 
farm. 

6.  Determining  cost  of  sheds  for  farm  implements  of 
the  homes  of  the  students. 

7.  Estimation  of  cost  of  farm  machinery  necessary 
to  run  a  one-man  farm  successfully. 

8.  Drawing  of  house  and  barn  designs. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  73 

9.  Making  surveys  and  maps  of  farms. 

10.  Reports  by  students  on  special  studies. 

11.  Practical  work  in  rope  tying  and  splicing. 

12.  Designing,  plumbing,  lighting,  and  heating  a  coun- 
try home. 

FARM  MANAGEMENT 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit) 

L  The  choice  of  a  farm. 

1.  Location  as  determined  by  capital  and  personal 
qualifications. 

2.  Size  of  farm,  determined  — 

a.  By  type  of  farming  to  be  done. 

b.  By  capital  available. 

c.  Average  size  farms. 

3.  Shape  and  location  of  fields. 

a.  With  reference  to  farm  buildings. 

6.  With  reference  to  fencing. 

c.  Most  convenient  arrangements. 

4.  Topography  —  as  aff eeting  drainage,  erosion,  cul- 
tivation and  frosts. 

5.  Soils. 

a.  Physical  conditions. 

b.  Natural  fertility. 

c.  Waste  and  arable  land. 

6.  Neighborhood. 

a.  Social,  educational,  moral,  and  religious  sta- 
tus of  the  people. 

b.  Kind  and  conditions  of  farming  done. 

7.  Improvements,  buildings,  roads,  trees,  grounds, 
etc. 

8.  Market  facilities  and  demands. 
IE.  Farm  labor. 

1.  How  much  to  hire,  where  to  secure,  and  how  to 
manage. 


74         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

2.  How  much  money  should  the  owner  expect  to 
make?  Comparison  with  other  occupations. 

3.  Influence  of  farm  machinery  and  urban  oppor- 
tunities on  farm  labor. 

4.  Methods  of  rental  —  cash  and  share.  A  just  pro- 
portion for  each. 

HI.  Farm  equipment. 

1.  Expenditure  for  buildings,   machinery,  etc.,   in 
proportion  to  size  of  the  farm. 

2.  Amount  and  kinds  of  live-stock  in  proportion  to 
size  of  farm. 

IV.  Systems  of  farming. 

1.  Systems  of  crop  rotation.  Farm  lay-out. 

2.  Live-stock  farming. 
8.  Grain  farming. 

4.  Fruit  and  truck  fanning. 

5.  General  farming. 

6.  Maintenance  of  systems  of  permanent  soil  fertility. 

7.  Principles  of  marketing  in  successful  business. 
V.  Farm  records  and  crops. 

1.  Farm  bookkeeping. 

a.  Kinds  and  accounts  to  keep. 

b.  Methods  of  keeping  accounts. 

2.  Special  records. 

a.  Special  farm  accounts. 

b.  Crop  records  of  special  fields. 

c.  Comparison  of  cost  of  production  with  gross 
returns  in  growing  given  field  crops  or  ani- 
mals. 

d.  Records  in  crop  rotation  in  a  system  of  per- 
manent soil  fertility. 

8.  Insurance,  taxes,  etc. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Use  of  the  Cornell  score  card  in  judging  and  scor- 
ing the  farms  of  the  locality. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  75 

2.  Keep  accounts  with  chickens,  pigs,  cows,  gardens, 
or  some  field  crops,  and  determine  the  profit  and 
loss. 

3.  Enter  a  set  of  farm  accounts  for  a  whole  farm,  for 
at  least  a  part  of  the  year  and  balance  the  books. 

4.  Business  forms:  Make  out  an  order  for  goods,  a 
contract  with  a  hired  man,  a  lease,  a  note,  a  check, 
a  receipt,  etc. 

5.  Make  out  farm  assessment  sheets  and  determine 
the  taxes  to  be  paid  at  the  local  rate. 

6.  Keep  an  account  of  a  crop  rotation  series  in  a  sys- 
tem of  permanent  agriculture. 

7.  List  the  leading  principles  to  follow  in  the  prep- 
aration of  fruit,  vegetables,  farm  crops  and  ani- 
mals for  the  best  markets. 

PLANT  AND  ANIMAL  IMPROVEMENT 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit) 

I.  Origin  of  domesticated  animals. 

1.  The  horse. 

2.  The  cow. 

3.  The  sheep. 

4.  The  swine. 

5.  Poultry. 

II.  Variation  hi  plants  and  animals. 

1.  Laws  of  variation. 

2.  Importance  of  variation  in  plant  and  animal  im- 
provement. 

3.  Improvement  by  selection. 

4.  Natural  selection. 

5.  "  Sports  "  or  mutations. 
HI.  Heredity. 

1.  Laws  of  heredity. 

2.  Problems  of  heredity. 

3.  Mendel's  Law  and  its  application. 


76   '     THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

IV.  Reproduction  in  plants  and  animals. 

1.  Essentials  in  reproduction.1 

2.  Reproductive  organs  of  plants. 

8.  Sexual  and  asexual  reproduction. 
4.  Artificial  crossing. 

V.  Breeding. 

1.  In-breeding  and  cross-breeding. 

9.  Asa.  method  of  improving  plants  and  animals. 

a.  Increasing  variation. 
6.  Selection  of  desirable  forms. 
c.  Testing  power  of  selected  individuals  to  re- 
produce desirable  characteristics. 
VI.  Improving  farm  crops. 

1.  Plant  breeding  vs.  animal  breeding. 

2.  Crops  that  have  been  improved  —  sugar  beet, 
corn,  cotton,  etc. 

3.  Improvement  by  cross  fertilization. 

4.  Improvement  by  selecting  the  best  for  breeding 
purposes. 

Practiced  Exercises 

sl.  Observation  studies  of  variations  in  plants, — 
a  number  of  elm  leaves,  corn  stalks  or  other  plants 
of  the  same  species  for  each  student.  Note  that 
no  two  plants  or  leaves  are  exactly  alike. 
2.  Field  trip  to  weed  patch,  forest,  or  thicket  to  study 
struggle  for  existence  and  its  effect  on  variation. 

1  By  the  right  approach  the  instructor  can  very  briefly  give  the  student  an  excel- 
lent knowledge  of  the  reproductive  process  in  plants  and  animals,  and  incidentally 
impart  a  fund  of  extremely  valuable  information.  The  following  is  about  the  most 
successful  outline  of  procedure:  — 

Begin  with  the  ovum,  the  female  cell  among  animals,  a  common  example  of  which 
is  the  egg  on  the  open  market;  show  that  the  essential  part  of  this  ovum  is  its  nu- 
cleus, which  is  in  most  cases  microscopic;  state  that  this  nucleus  will,  under  proper 
conditions,  develop  into  a  new  individual  of  the  same  species;  sometimes  it  is  a 
question  merely  of  surrounding  conditions,  but  generally  it  requires  the  advent  and 
union  with  a  new  nucleus  from  the  male  side  before  development  takes  place. 

The  mechanism  for  bringing  these  two  nuclei  together  varies  widely;  among 
plants,  gravity,  winds  and  insects  are  the  common  agencies,  while  in  animals  special* 
ized  organ*  are  required. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  77 

8.  Make  microscopical  studies  of  pollen  grains  and 
egg  cell  if  possible. 

4.  Make  seed  selections  from  seed  lots,  giving  rea- 
sons for  the  choice. 

5.  Practice  in-breeding  and  cross  breeding  of  corn, 
pop  corn,  naturally  and  artificially,  and  note  re- 

•  suits.  . 

6.  Detassel  a  given  row  of  corn  and  compare  its  yield 
with  the  tasseled  row. 

7.  Make  collection  of  freaks  in  plant  growth. 

8.  Let  each  student  carry  on  some  crop  improve- 
ment project  for  the  summer,  such  as  an  ear-to- 
row  test  of  corn,  hill-row  test  of  potatoes,  or  some 
other  plant. 


POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit) 

I.  Poultry-raising. 

1.  As  a  business. 

2.  As  one  feature  of  general  farming. 

3.  As  a  school  study. 

II.  Members  of  the  poultry  group. 

III.  Types  and  breeds  of  poultry. 

1.  Meat  types,  characteristics,  and  breeds. 

2.  Egg  types,  characteristics,  and  breeds. 
8.  Broiler  types. 

4.  Roaster  and  soft  roaster. 

6.  General  purpose  types,  breeds,  farm  poultry. 

IV.  Selection  of  the  breeding  stock. 

1.  Selecting  fowls  for  egg  production,  influence  of 
age,  vigor,  etc. 

2.  Selecting  fowls  for  meat  production. 

.  V.  The  anatomy  of  the  fowl  —  name  of  external  and  in« 
terual  parts. 


78        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

VI.  Feeding  poultry;  young  chickens;  fattening  chickens; 
and  laying  hens,  especially  for  winter  egg  production. 

1.  The  hard  grains. 

2.  The  ground  grains. 

3.  Mixture  of  mashes. 

4.  Animal  feed. 

5.  Green  feed. 

6.  Grits,  shells,  etc. 

7.  Watering. 
VII.  Poultry  houses. 

1.  Location. 

2.  Construction,  various  types  of  houses. 

8.  Interior  arrangement. 

4.  Equipment. 

5.  Essentials  of  a  good  house. 
VIII.  Egg  production  —  factors. 

1.  Good  stock. 

2.  Properly  fed. 

3.  Suitable  buildings. 

4.  Exercise. 

5.  Sympathetic  care  of  interest. 

,  IX.  Incubation  —  natural  and  artificial. ' 

1.  Selection  of  eggs. 

2.  Setting  the  hens. 

3.  Development  of  artificial  incubation,  various 
methods. 

4.  Modern  types  of  machines. 

5.  Factors  in  artificial  incubation  —  temperature, 
ventilation,  moisture,  manipulation  of  eggs,  etc. 

X.  Development  of  the  embryo  chick. 
XI.  Brooding  —  natural  and  artificial. 

1.  Coops,  brooders,  and  essential  factors  in  man- 
agement. 

2.  Summer  vs.  winter  brooding. 

XH.  Feeding,  management,  and  general  care  of  young  and 
growing  chicks. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  79 

XIII.  Fattening  and  killing  —  methods  and  devices. 

XIV.  Marketing  poultry  and  eggs. 

XV.  Diseases,  prevention  and  treatment. 
XVI.  Study  of  ducks,  geese,  and  turkeys,  as  time  permits. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Observing  and  naming  the  parts  of  a  fowl. 

2.  Identifying  types,  breeds,  and  varieties. 

3.  Study  of  differences  due  to  age,  sex,  and  vigor; 
the  pelvic  bone  test. 

4.  Selecting  eggs  for  hatching,  testing  and  grading 
eggs  for  market. 

5.  Preserving  eggs. 

6.  Identification  of  feeds.  Mixing  feeds. 

7.  Drawing  plans  for  poultry  houses. 

8.  Construction  of  coops,  feed  hoppers,  trap  nests* 
etc. 

9.  Caponizing  demonstration. 

10.  Killing  and  picking. 

11.  Making  and  using  material  for  killing  lice. 

12.  Setting  an  incubator. 

13.  Trips  to  poultry  farms. 

14.  Reports  upon  local  poultry  production. 

15.  Home  project  —  raising  poultry. 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit) 

I.  Importance  of  the  dairy  industry. 

1.  Dairy  products  as  foods. 

2.  Relation  to  soil  fertility. 

3.  Relation  to  farm  labor  problems.    ' 
II.  Dairy  breeds. 

1.  Origin,  history  and  characteristics  of  each. 

2.  The  dairy  type. 

3.  Holstein-Friesian. 


80        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTUBE 

4.  Ayrshire. 

5.  Guernsey. 

6.  Jersey. 

7.  Red  polls. 

8.  Brown  swiss. 

9.  Dutch  belted. 

10.  Shorthorn; 

11.  Milch  goats. 

12.  Starting  a  dairy  herd. 
HI.  Judging  dairy  cattle. 

;IV.  Care  and  management  of  dairy  cows. 

1.  Cow-testing  associations. 

2.  Problems  in  management  of  a  herd. 
S.  Dairy  barns. 

4.  Common  diseases  of  cattle. 
V.  Feeding  dairy  cattle. 

1.  Winter  and  summer  feeding. 

2.  Some  good  rations. 

3.  Silage  and  legume  hays. 

4.  Calf-raising. 
VI.  Milk  production. 

1.  Food  value  of  milk.  . 

2.  Essentials  in  clean  milk  production. 
8.  Production  and  distribution  of  milk. 
4.  Pasteurized  and  certified  milk. 

VII.  Farm  dairying. 

1.  The  milk-house. 

2.  Testing  milk. 

8.  Cream  separation. 

4.  Butter-making. 

5.  Cheese-making. 

6.  Cleanliness  in  farm  dairying. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Survey  of  dairy  cattle  in  the  district. 

2.  Naming  and  locating  external  parts  of  a  dairy  cow. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  81 

3.  Comparative  judging. 

4.  Scoring  dairy  cows. 

5.  Testing  individual  cows  with  Babcock  test  and 
scales  for  a  given  time. 

6.  Balancing  rations  and  determining  feeding  stand- 
ards for  dairy  cows. 

7.  Inspection  trips  to  dairy  farms. 

8.  Reports  on  local  dairy  barns. 

9.  Visits  to  local  creameries. 
10.  Making  the  tuberculin  test. 

VEGETABLE  GARDENING 
(One  semester  —  One  half  unit) 

I.  Types  of  vegetable  gardening.  ^ 
II.  Factors  in  the  location  of  the  garden. 
HI.  Garden  seed,  clean,  pure,  strong  in  vitality. 
IV.  Garden  soil  and  the  plant  food. 

1.  Manures. 

2.  Composts. 

3.  Commercial  fertilizers. 

4.  Quantities  and  time  of  application  of  manures 
and  fertilizers. 

V.  Controlling  moisture  and  temperature  in  garden  soil. 
VI.  Hotbeds  and  cold-frames. 
VIE.  Preparation  of  garden  soil  for  planting. 
Vlil.  Planting  the  seeds,  depth,  distances,  amount,  etc. 
IX.  Cultivation  of  garden  vegetables. 
X.  Control  of  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases  that 

affect  garden  vegetables. 
XI.  Cool  season  crops.  ' 

1.  Spring  salads. 

2.  Leaf  lettuce. 

3.  Spinach. 

4.  Radishes. 

5.  Turnips. 


82         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

6.  Peas. 

7.  Onions  from  sets. 

XII.  Transplanted  crops,  methods  of  transplanting. 

1.  Head  lettuce. 

2.  Cabbage. 

8.  Cauliflower. 

4.  Brussels  sprouts. 

5.  Tomatoes. 

6.  Eggplant. 

7.  Sweet  potatoes. 

8.  Celery. 

Xm.  Systems  of  intensive  cropping. 
XIX.  Harvesting  and  marketing  vegetables. 
XX.  Canning  and  storing  vegetables  for  winter  use. 

Practical  Exercises 

1.  Drawing  plans  for  vegetable  gardens. 

2.  Making  flats,  mixing  soil  for  flats,  and  planting 
seeds  of  head  lettuce,  cabbage,  celery,  and^to- 
matoes. 

3.  Making  hotbeds  and  cold-frames. 

4.  Planting  hotbed. 

6.  Transplanting  from  flats  and  hotbeds  to  the 
gardens. 

6.  Laying  out  and  planting  various  crops  of  the 
garden. 

7.  Written  reports  on  characteristics  and  cultural 
requirements  of  standard  garden  vegetable. 

8.  Preparing  vegetables  for  the  market. 

9.  Trips  to  observe  vegetable  gardens  and  markets. 
10.  Canning  vegetables.  •' 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  83 

ONE-YEAR  HIGH-SCHOOL  GENERAL  COURSE  IN 
AGRICULTURE 

I.  Agronomy  —  Field  Crops  and  Soil.  (10-12  weeks.) 
A.  Special  topics  for  study 

1.  How  plants  grow. 

a.  Plants,  the  basis  of  all  agriculture. 

b.  Life-history  of  higher  plants. 

c.  The  biological  processes  in  the  growth, 
nutrition,  and  reproduction  of  plants. 
An  elementary  study  of  the  life  proc- 
esses of  plants. 

2.  Factors  of  crop  production. 

a.  Seeds. 

b.  Soil. 

c.  Plant  food. 

d.  Moisture. 

e.  Warmth. 
/.  Air. 

g.  Tillage. 
rf.  Some  economic  crops. 

o.  Classification  of  crops. 

6.  Importance  of  good  seed. 

c.  Principles  of  planting  seed. 
4.  Wheat. 

a.  Facts  of  general  interest  about  this 
great  cereal:  —  origin,  geographical 
range,  varieties,  grades,  uses,  etc. 

6.  Factors  in  wheat  production : — place  in 
the  rotation,  soil  requirements,  fertili- 
zing the  ground,  seed-bed  preparation, 
good  seed,  methods  in  planting,  insect 
and  fungous  control,  harvesting,  etc. 
6.  Oats. 

a.  Economic  importance  of  the  crop. 

b.  Varieties  and  adaptations. 


84         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

c.  Place  in  the  rotation. 

d.  Soil  needs,  seed-bed  preparation,  time 
and  methods  of  sowing. 

e.  Treatment  for  smut. 

/.  Harvesting  and  threshing. 

6.  Corn. 

a.  Facts  of  general  interest  about  this 
great  crop : — origin,  geographical  range, 
kinds  of  corn,  uses,  etc. 

6.  Factors  in  corn  production;  place  in  the 
rotation,  preparation  of  soil,  fertil- 
izers, seed-bed,  selecting  and  storing 
seed  corn,  seed  testing,  corn  judging, 
planting,  cultivating,  insect  control, 
harvesting,  silage,  etc. 

c.  Learn  the  proper  methods  in  every 
step  of  successful  corn  growing. 

7.  Clover. 

o.  Production  and  disposition  of  legumes, 

the  great  problem  of  agriculture. 
6.  Kinds  and  descriptions  of  true  clovers. 

c.  Soil  preparation,  seeding,  place  in  the 
rotation  of  red  clover. 

d.  Manurial  value;  hay  value. 

e.  Growing  clover  seed. 
8.  Alfalfa. 

a.  Interesting  facts  about  the  plant;  ori- 
.  gin,  history,  distribution,  and  varie- 
ties. 

6.  Values  of  alfalfa:  —  a  money  crop, 
beneficial  as  a  soil  builder,  high  feeding 
value  for  all  live-stock. 

C.  Essentials  in  the  production  of  alfalfa: 
—  soil  preparation,  liming,  good  seed, 
inoculation,  time  and  rate  of  sowing, 
winter  killing. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  85 

d.  Harvesting,  curing,  number  of  cuttings, 

discuring  after  cutting,  etc. 
9.  Meadows  and  Pastures. 

a.  Importance  of  the  grasses. 

b.  Standard  forage  crops. 

c.  Hay  crops. 

d.  Seeding  for  meadows  and  pastures. 

e.  Renewing  old  meadows  and  pastures. 
10.  Elementary  soil  studies. 

a.  The  greatest  factor  in  crop  production. 
6.  Origin  and  formation  of  soils,  agencies 
of  soil  formation. 

c.  Soil  mulches. 

d.  Organic  matter  in  the  soil. 

e.  Types  of  soil. 

/.  Problems  in  soil  fertility. 

g.  Elements  of  plant  food,  sources  and 

amounts. 

h.  Use  of  manures,  lime,  and  fertilizers. 
i.  The  Illinois  system  of  permanent  soil 

fertility. 

B.  Some  suggestions  for  laboratory  and  home-pro- 
ject work  in  agronomy 

1.  Wheat. 

a.  Studies  of  the  whole  wheat  plant. 

b.  Observation  study  of  wheat  heads  and 
kernels. 

c.  Grading  seed  wheat.   Use  of  the  fan- 
ning mill. 

d.  Treating  seed  wheat  for  stinking  smut. 

e.  Examination  for  Hessian  fly. 

/.  Observation  of  stooling  habits  of  wheat. 
g.   Estimating  the  stand  and  per  cent  of 
winter  killing. 

2.  Oats. 

a.  Study  of  the  whole  oat  plant. 


86        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

6.  A  study  of  the  mature  head  of  oats. 

c.  Examination  of  seed  oats. 

d.  Treating  oats  for  smut. 

3.  Corn. 

a.  Study  of  the  whole  corn  plant. 

b.  Determining  stand  of  corn  in  the  field. 

c.  Study  of  a  good  corn  ear. 

d.  Study  of  the  corn  kernel. 

e.  Selecting  seed  corn  in  the  field. 

/.  Preliminary  studies  of   corn  ears  for 

corn  judging. 

g.  Storing  racks  for  seed  corn. 
h.  Corn  judging  practice. 
i.  Testing  seed  corn. 
j.  Grading  seed  for  the  planter. 

4.  Clover. 

a.  Field  or  laboratory  study  of  the  red 
clover  plant. 

b.  Estimating  the  clover  seed  crop.    Ex- 
amination of  clover  heads  for  the  midge 
and  caterpillar. 

c.  Examining  and  testing  clover  seed  for 
purity  and  germination. 

d.  Make  collection  of  many  kinds  of  le- 
gume seeds. 

5.  Alfalfa. 

a.  Field  study  of  the  alfalfa  plant. 

b.  Growing  a  small  plot  of  alfalfa. 

c.  Examining  and  testing  alfalfa  seed  for 
purity  and  germination. 

d.  Inoculating  alfalfa  seed  by  the  glue 
method. 

6.  Meadows  and  pastures. 

a.  Identification  studies  of  grasses  and 
legumes.  Make  a  list  of  forage  crops 
in  the  community.  •  . 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  87 

b.  Critical   studies,   observing   meadows 
and  pastures. 

c.  Make  a  collection  of  different  hays. 
Learn  to  recognize  and  describe  good 
hay. 

7.  Soils. 

a.  Field  trips  to  observe  soil  formation 
and  types  of  soil. 

b.  Practice  in  use  of  State  soil  reports. 

c.  Simple  exercises  in  soil  physics  such 
as,  determination  of  volumes,  weight, 
capillary  rise  of  water,  water  hold  ca- 
pacity, effects  of  soil  mulch,  effects  of 
organic  matter,  lime,  etc. 

d.  Observation  of  the  elements  and  com- 
pounds containing  essential  plant  foods. 

e.  Pot  cultures  of  the  soil  types  of  the 
community. 

/.  Testing  soil  for  acidity. 
g.  Outdoor  plots  (if  summer  labor  is  avail- 
able.) 

(See  various  manuals  on  Farm  Crops 
and  Soils.) 

II.  Animal  husbandry.  (1O-12  weeks.) 
A.  Special  topics  for  study. 

1.  Live-stock  farming. 

a.  Importance  of  farm  animals  in  agricul- 
ture. 
6.  Pure-breds,  grades  and  scrubs. 

2.  The  farm  horse. 

a.  Interesting  facts  of  horse  history. 
6.  Types  and  breeds  of  horses. 

c.  Grading-up  horses. 

d.  Judging  horses. 

e.  Feeding  and  care  of  horses. 


88        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

/.  Points  in  good  horsemanship. 
g.  Common  diseases  of  the  horse. 
8.  The  dairy  cow. 

a.  The  dairy  industry. 

b.  Study  major  dairy  breeds,  their  origin 
and  extent. 

c.  General  characteristics  of  dairy  cattle. 

d.  Judging  the  dairy  cow. 

e.  Dairy  products  with  special  attention 
to  production  and  handling  of  milk. 

/.  Study  comparative  values  of  individ- 
ual cows.  Learn  of  some  record  cows 
and  their  production. 

g.  Calves:  —  care  and  management. 

h.  Feeding  dairy  cattle,  feeding  standards, 

balanced  rations,  etc. 
4.  Swine. 

a.  Facts  of  general  interest,  some  pig  his- 
tory, importance  of  the  swine  indus- 
try, etc. 

b.  Types  and  breeds  of  swine,  learn  names 
and  characteristics,  points  of  excellen- 
cies, origin,  extent,  etc.,  of  each. 

e.  Selecting  the  stock  in  beginning  the 
business  —  a  good  sow,  a  good  boar. 

d.  Feeding   and  management  of  swine, 
feeding    standards,    supplements     to 
corn,  pastures,  etc. 

e.  Hog  houses. 

/.  Points  in  the  care  of  the  brood  sow. 
g.  Care  of  little  pigs. 
h.  Some  hog  diseases. 
i.  Marketing  swine. 
'  5.  Poultry. 

a.  The  poultry  industry,  scope  and  op- 
portunity. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  89 

b.  The  hen  as  a  machine  for  production. 

c.  Types,  breeds,  and  variety  character- 
istics, origin,  history,  and  joints  of  ex- 
cellence of  a  few  important  breeds. 

d.  Selecting  the  layers,  age,  vigor,  etc. 

e.  Housing  poultry.   Details  of  construc- 
tion, interior  arrangement,  and  equip- 
ment of  poultry  houses. 

/.  Feeding  poultry.  Fundamentals  of 
feeding.  Different  feeds  and  their  uses. 
Influence  of  age,  breed,  season,  pur- 
pose, environment,  etc.,  on  feeding 
methods. 

g.  Marketing  poultry  and  eggs. 

h.  Incubation  —  natural  and  artificial. 

t.  Diseases,  sanitation,  and  general  care. 
Note:  In  a  one-year  general  course 
it  is  not  necessary  or  advisable  to  study 
all  phases  of  each  subject.  In  Animal 
Husbandry,  beef,  cattle  and  sheep  have 
been  omitted  in  this  course.  Local  in- 
terests may  justify  emphasis  on  these 
topics  however. 

B.  Some  suggestions  for  laboratory  and  home-pro- 
ject work  in  animal  husbandry. 

1.  The  horse. 

a.  Reports  of  home  types  and  breeds  of 
horses. 

b.  Study  of  external  parts  of  the  horse. 

c.  Comparative  judging. 

d.  Harnessing  a  horse. 

e.  Reports  from  experiences  with  horses. 
/.  Determination  of  feed  rations.   - 

g.  Determining  age  of  horse. 

2.  The  dairy  cow. 

a.  Reports  upon  home  dairy  cattle. 


90        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

6.  Observation  study  of  a  dairy  cow,  learn- 
ing dairy  type,  names  of  parts,  etc. 

c.  Scoring  dairy  cattle. 

d.  Determining  balanced  rations  for  dairy 
cows. 

e.  Making  daily  milk  records  for  a  given 
period. 

/.  Using  the  Babcock  test. 
g.  Reports  on  calf-raising  methods. 
S.  Swine. 

a.  Reports  on  swine  at  the  home  farm. 

b.  Study  and  keep  "  tab ' '  on  market  prices. 

c.  Inspection  trip. 

d.  Comparative  judging. 

e.  Diagraming  hog  houses. 

/.  Making  concrete  hog  wallows.' 
g.  Making  feed  troughs. 
4.  Poultry. 

a.  Inspection  trips  to  poultry  flocks.  \ 
6.  Identification  of  types  and  breeds.  ,x 

c.  Exercise  in  naming  parts  of  the  bird.  , 

d.  Judging  fowls. 

e.  Determining  age,  sex,  vigor,  and  pelvic 
bone  test. 

/.  Laboratory  study  —  identifying  feeds. 
g.  Building  trap  nests,  feed  hoppers,  etc. 
h.  Laboratory  study  of  eggs.  Testing  and 

grading  eggs. 

i.  Caponizing  demonstration. 
].  Setting  a  hen,  and  an  incubator. 

(See  various  texts  and  manuals  for 

details  of  laboratory  work.)    . 
HL  Farm  business  and  life.  (2-4  weeks.) 
,A.  Special  topics  for  study. 

1.  The  business  of  farming. 

a.  The  farmer  as  a  business  man. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  91 

b.  The  farmer's  labor  income. 

c.  The  farm  boy  and  the  farming  busi- 
ness. 

d.  Some  problems  in  farm  management. 

e.  Marketing  farm  products. 
/.  Farm  records  and  accounts. 

,2.  Country-life  organizations. 

a.  Agriculture  an  unorganized  industry. 
6.  Organization  and  progress. 

c.  The  Grange. 

d.  Farmers'  Institutes. 

e.  Country  Life  Clubs. 

/.  Boys' and  Girls' Clubs. 

g.  Agricultural    Improvement    Associa- 
tions. 

k.  Other  farmers'  organizations. 

i.  Some  activities  of  farmers'  organiza- 
tions. 
1.  Rural-life  progress. 

a.  Rural  institutions. 

b.  The  farm. 

c.  The  farm  home. 

d.  The  country  school. 

e.  The  roads. 

/.  Political  and  social  life. 
g.  The  country  church. 
B.  Suggestions  for  laboratory  and  home-project  work. 

1.  Determining  farm  labor  incomes. 

2.  Records  of  crop  rotations. 

3.  Making  farm  inventories. 

4.  Practice  with  common  business  forms,  such 
as  checks,  lease  contracts,  business  letters, 
notes,  etc. 

5.  Formation  of  Agricultural  Club. 

6.  Reports  on  important  farmers'  organizations. 

7.  Listing  rural-life  conditions  and  needs. 


92        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

IV.  Horticulture.    (10-12  weeks.) 
A.  Special  topics  for  study. 

1.  Interesting  facts  about  horticulture. 

a.  Branches  of  the  subject. 

b.  Importance  in  agriculture  and  life. 

c.  Men,  nationally  and  locally  connected 
with  horticultural  development. 

d.  Great  fruit  growing  sections  of  the 
United  States. 

2.  Propagation  of  plants. 

a.  Seeds. 

b.  Cuttings. 

e.  Divisions. 

d.  Layering. 

e.  Grafting.    . 
/.  Budding,  etc. 

g.  General  principles  to  be  taken  up  con- 
cretely in  connection  with  the  plants 
studied  later. 

3.  Farm  forestry. 

a.  Tree  studies  —  individual  trees. 

b.  Tree  societies,  —  the  forest, 
e.  Forest  conditions. 

d.  The  wood  supply. 

e.  Forest  influences. 

/.  The  forests  of  the  United  States. 

g.  The  farmer's  woodlot,  planting,  care, 

and  use. 
h.  Nut  crops. 
i.  Trees  in  the  landscape. 

4.  The  farm  orchard. 

a.  Fruit  growing  on  the  farm. 

b.  The  apple  orchard  from  the  beginning 
to  bearing;  selecting  the  trees;  varie- 
ties; the  nursery  stock;  the  orchard  site; 
laying  out  the  orchard;  planting  the 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTUKE  93 

trees;  pruning  young  trees;  winter  pro- 
tection; cultivating  the  orchard;  spray- 
ing, etc. 

c.  Rejuvenating  old  orchards;  pruning; 
spraying;  fertilizing  the  soil;  cultivat- 
ing; top- working. 

d.  Types  of  fruit. 

e.  Common  orchard  pests. 
/.  Packing  and  storing  fruit. 

S.  The  vegetable  garden. 

a.  Factors  in  locating  the  home  garden. 
6.  Preparation  of  garden  soil. 

c.  The  seed  bed. 

d.  Fertilizing  the  garden. 

e.  Laying  out  the  garden. 
/.  Getting  the  seed. 

g.  Early  and  late  season  plants. 

h.  Planting  tables. 
;  i.  Seed  sowing. 

j.  Transplanting. 

k.  Thinning. 

I.  Cultivation.  Garden  tools. 

m.  Serious  garden  insect  pests  and  dis- 
eases; methods  of  control. 

n.  Preparing  garden  products  for  the  mar- 
ket. 

o.  Storing  and  canning  garden  products. 
0.  The  country  beautiful. 

a.  Landscape  gardening,  the  fine  art  for 
the  country. 

6.  Beautifying  home  and  school  grounds, 
elementary  principles  of  arrangement 
and  planting. 

c.  Screening  unsightly  objects. 

d.  Care  of  the  trees. 


94        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

e.  Making  pictures  in  the  landscape. 
/.  Materials  to  use  in  planting. 
B.  Some  suggestions  for  laboratory  and  home-project 
work  in  horticulture. 
1.  Farm  forestry. 

a.  Identifying  common  trees. 
6.  Study  and  reports  on  tree  characteris- 
tics. 

c.  Observation  of  forest  conditions. 

d.  Determining  board  measure  of  trees. 

e.  Collection  of  wood  samples. 

/.  Map  studies  of  forest  areas  in  the 

United  States. 
g.  Planting  forest  nursery. 
h.  Setting  a  catalpa  grove. 
i.  Observation  study  of  nuts. 
£.  The  farm  orchard. 

a.  Reports  on  home  orchards. 

b.  Inspection  of  nursery  stock. 

c.  Laying  out  a  farm  orchard. 

d.  Planting  fruit  trees. 

e.  Pruning  young  trees. 

/.  Pruning  old  apple  trees. 
g.  Spraying  demonstration. 
h.  Laboratory  studies  of  orchard  insects 

and  fungous  diseases. 
i.  Exercises  in  grafting. 
j.  Observation  studies  of  types  of  fruit. 
k.  Judging  apples  and  other  fruit. 
I.  Survey  of  orchards  of  the  community. 
m.  Practice  in  packing  apples. 
n.  Canning  and  drying  fruit. 
3.  The  vegetable  garden. 

a.  Making  garden  plans. 

6.  Laying  out  and  planting  the  garden. 

c.  Making  hotbeds  and  cold-frames. 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  95 

d.  Tabulating  cultural   requirements  for 
vegetables. 

e.  Outline  studies  for  each  vegetable. 
/.  Canning  and  drying  vegetables. 

4.  Beautifying  home  and  school  grounds. 

a.  Mapping  home  and  school  grounds. 

b.  Critical  study  of  pictures  of  landscapes. 

c.  Practical    planting    of    trees,    shrubs, 
bulbs,  flower  seeds,  etc. 

V.  Home  projects. 

In  addition  to  the  textbook,  field,  and  laboratory 
work  outlined  for  the  one-year  general  course  in  agri- 
culture, each  student  should  choose  one  home  project, 
and  carry  it  through  to  some  satisfactory  point  of  con- 
clusion. The  essentials  of  a  home  project,  are:  (l)  A 
definite,  detailed  plan  for  work  at  home,  covering  a 
more  or  less  extended  period  of  tune;  (2)  it  should  be  a 
part  of  the  instruction  in  school  in  agriculture;  (3)  par- 
ents, pupils,  and  teacher  should  agree  upon  the  plan; 
I  (4)  the  home  work  should  have  competent  supervision; 
(5)  records  and  reports  of  the  work  must  be  kept  and 
submitted  to  the  teacher.  Many  of  the  home  projects 
done  in  agriculture  may  be  begun  in  the  fall  and  others 
are  best  undertaken  during  the  second  hah*  of  the  school 
year.  The  home  project  is  credited  in  various  ways.  An 
additional  five  or  ten  per  cent  may  be  added  to  the 
pupil's  grade  in  agriculture,  his  grade  may  be  withheld 
until  the  project  is  satisfactorily  completed,  or  from 
one  fourth  to  one  half  unit  may  be  added  to  the  stu- 
dent's school  record. 

The  following  home  projects  are  recommended:  — 

1.  Equipping  a  farm  boy's  office. 

2.  Poultry-raising. 

8.  Keeping  dairy  cows. 

4.  Raising  pigs. 

5.  Growing  a  plot  of  corn. 


06         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

6.  Making  insect  studies. 

7.  Growing  alfalfa. 

8.  Soil  fertility  demonstrations. 

9.  Vegetable  gardening. 
10.  Tomato-raising. 

j  11.  Potato-raising. 

12.  Growing  cucumbers. 

13.  Sweet-corn  culture. 

14.  Growing  strawberries. 

15.  Growing  sweet-peas. 

16.  Beautifying  home  grounds. 

17.  Care  of  fruit  trees. 

18.  Setting  out  a  young  orchard. 

19.  Planting  a  catalpa  grove. 

20.  Growing  sudan  grass. 

21.  Growing  soy  beans. 

22.  Making  a  concrete  walk. 

23.  Making  a  farm  gate. 

24.  Farm,  home,  and  community  survey. 

REFERENCES 
Textbooks  —  General  Agriculture 

Essentials  of  Agriculture.  Waters. 
Agriculture.  Benson  and  Betts. 
A  Year  in  Agriculture.  Nolan. 
Productive  Farming.  Davis. 
Agriculture.  Call  and  Kent. 
Elementary  Agriculture.  Grim. 
Elements  of  Agriculture.  Warren. 

Anthology  of  Agriculture 

G.  Stanley  Hall,  in  his  famous  work  on  Adolescence,  states 
that  all  branches  of  study  relating  to  nature  are  approached 
best  through  sentiment,  and  that  sentiment  comes  before 
utility.  He  believes  that  the  reason  why  many  branches  of 


HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE  97 

science  in  the  high  school  are  not  popular  with  the  students 
is  because  they  are  taught  in  too  formal  and  technical  man- 
ner, and  that  in  textbooks  and  methods  of  teaching,  we  ig- 
nore natural  interests,  which  according  to  Dr.  Hall  lie  in  the 
field  of  myth,  poetry,  hero-worship,  and  religious  sentiment. 
Here  is  opened  a  field  for  investigation.  If  Dr.  Hall  is  right, 
then  in  our  agricultural  teaching  in  the  high  school  we  should 
make  much  of  poetry,  hero-worship,  religious  ideals,  and  the 
anthology  of  agriculture.  Our  standard  texts  have  not  em- 
phasized these  things,  and  our  agricultural  teachers  pretty 
generally  hold  to  the  technical,  practical,  and  vocational 
lines,  and  are  so  advised  by  their  agricultural  supervisors 
and  leaders. 

It  might  be  well  for  some  of  our  high-school  teachers  of 
agriculture  to  try  out  some  work  in  the  anthology  of  agri- 
culture as  a  supplement  to  the  technical  subject-matter 
given.  Very  little  organization  of  this  material  is  available, 
but  students  and  teachers  might  work  out  a  collection  to- 
gether, and  thus  ascertain  among  small  groups  the  response 
to  this  phase  of  agricultural  interest. 

Our  literature  abounds  in  real  literary  gems  of  agricul- 
tural reference,  but  these  have  not  been  brought  together 
to  any  considerable  extent.  Among  the  more  common  re- 
ferences containing  good  material  of  this  kind,  are:  — 

Bartlett.  Familiar  Quotations. 

Pliny.  Natural  History. 

Pope.  Essay  on  Man  and  other  essays. 

Abercrombie.  Folk-Lore  and  Garden  Craft  of  Shakespeare. 

Roe.  Success  with  Small  Fruits,  containing  abundant 
quotations  from  literature. 

The  Geneva  Experiment  Station,  New  York,  has  pub- 
lished volumes  on  each  of  the  leading  fruits  of  New  York. 
In  the  introduction  of  each  volume  are  liberal  quotations 
from  classic  literature. 

Among  horticultural  writers  whose  literary  tastes  lead 


98        THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

them  to  onthological  quotations  may  be  mentioned:  Adlum, 
Bailey,  Barry,  Downing,  Hovey,  Hussmann,  and  Longworth. 
Students  of  secondary  agriculture  should  have  definitely 
assigned  readings  and  reports  from  among  the  foregoing 
references,  and  from  such  books  as  The  Holy  Earth,  Bailey; 
The  Landscape  Beautiful,  Waugh;  Adventures  in  Content- 
ment, Grayson;  New  Lives  for  Old  and  One  Way  Out,  Carle- 
ton;  Joe,  the  Book  Farmer,  Harris;  The  Challenge  of  the 
Country,  Fiske;  Farm  Poems,  Riley;  Farm  Ballads,  Carle  ton. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES  IN  TEACHING 
AGRICULTURE 

A  fundamental  principle.  Whatever  the  text, 
method  of  teaching,  order  of  sequence,  or  content  of 
subject-matter  may  be,  out  of  a  course  of  agricultural 
instruction  should  result  as  an  asset  to  the  student: 
first,  clear  and  sure  knowledge  of  the  practical  things 
to  know  and  to  do  in  order,  here  and  now,  to  main- 
tain the  best  standards  of  crop  and  animal  production 
known,  and  to  make  such  improvements  as  are  needed 
to  reach  these  standards;  second,  good  business  judg- 
ment in  matters  of  buying  and  selling  on  the  markets 
of  the  world;  and,  third,  social  consciousness  of  civic 
relations  as  a  good  citizen. 

The  science  of  agriculture  and  farm  practice.  Upon 
the  introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  high  school 
one  often  hears  from  school  boards  and  principals: 
"  Now  we  must  get  some  land  and  equipment  right 
away."  The  idea  is  to  make  the  course  practical,  and 
the  opinion  seems  to  prevail  that  if  the  school  could 
acquire  land  and  elaborate  equipment,  then  the  prob- 
lem of  practical  work  is  solved.  There  are  two  weak- 
nesses to  this  proposition:  first,  the  failure  to  realize 
that  the  science  of  agriculture,  and  the  sciences  con- 
tributing to  it,  may  be  as  practical  to  the  successful 


100      THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

vocation  of  agriculture  as  farm  practice;  and,  second, 
that  as  our  schools  are  now  organized  it  is  not  possible 
to  get  any  real  farm  practice  from  the  use  of  school 
land. 

When  we  think  of  science  as  organized  knowledge 
or  information  upon  any  subject,  and  realize  that 
before  there  can  be  any  scientific  farm  practice,  the 
farmer  must  get  the  science  or  information,  then  we 
can  see  that  a  genuinely  practical  part  of  agricultural 
study  would  be  to  get  the  facts  and  principles  of  the 
science,  and  this  can  be  done  through  books,  lectures, 
and  laboratory  work.  Of  course,  the  ideal  method 
of  agricultural  instruction  would  be  to  have  the  school 
out  on  the  farm  in  the  open  country,  where  the  stu- 
dents could  get  real  farm  practice  hi  an  economical 
way,  in  addition  to  the  science  they  could  learn  from 
the  books  and  from  the  practice.  Even  here  the  stu- 
dent could  not  get  the  "  real  thing  ";  for,  as  one 
farmer  puts  it,  "  He  is  not  up  against  the  hillside 
with  a  mule  and  a  plough,  and  Betsy  and  the  babies 
to  provide  for." 

Until  our  schools  are  willing  to  break  with  tradi- 
tions, and  employ  an  instructor  of  agriculture  for 
twelve  months  of  the  year,  procure  enough  land  for 
profitable  production,  and  provide  manual  labor  at 
the  disposal  of  the  agricultural  department  through- 
out the  year,  our  agricultural  instruction  in  the  high 
schools  should  confine  itself  to  a  study  of  the  scien- 
tific principles  of  agricultural  practice  and  such  other 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       101 

sciences  as  may  contribute  to  a  better  understand- 
ing of  these  principles,  worked  out  through  textbooks, 
bulletins,  laboratory  exercises,  and  such  contribu- 
tions to  them  as  the  instructor  may  be  able  to  give, 
—  and  find  opportunity  for  farm  practice  work  by 
carrying  on,  in  cooperation  with  the  home  farm,  home 
project  work. 

Some  principles  of  scientific  agriculture.  In  order 
to  be  concrete  in  this  discussion,  it  may  be  well  to 
mention  some  principles  of  scientific  agriculture  which 
may  be  taught  in  various  phases  of  the  subject,  prin- 
ciples of  science  which  are  eminently  practical,  be- 
cause they  underlie  all  successful  farm  practice,  and 
must  be  understood  whether  taught  in  the  classroom 
or  in  the  field. 

First,  note  some  of  the  facts  relating  to  permanent 
soil  fertility.  Plants  must  be  fed;  their  food  comes 
from  the  air  and  soil;  about  ninety-eight  per  cent  of 
the  plant  food  is  carbon,  coming  from  the  air;  nitro- 
gen is  most  often  a  limiting  plant-food  element,  and 
in  farm  practice  it  is  most  economically  supplied  from 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  by  being  pre-worked  by 
lower  forms  of  plant  life  known  as  bacteria,  living 
parasitically  upon  the  roots  of  legumes;  phosphorus 
is  often  a  limiting  plant-food  element  and  is  economi- 
cally supplied  by  liberal  applications  of  fine-ground 
raw  rock  phosphate  incorporated  into  the  soil  with 
organic  matter;  lime  corrects  soil  acidity,  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  soil,  adds  a  plant  food,  and 


102       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

aids  in  rendering  available  other  mineral  foods.  These 
and  other  facts  are  practical  and  teachable,  and  it 
does  not  require  expensive  equipment  or  farm  prac- 
tice to  get  them.  It  goes  without  saying,  however, 
that  successful  farm  practice,  involving  the  principles 
of  permanent  soil  fertility,  will  fix  the  knowledge  as 
no  other  method  can  do. 

Second,  the  principles  and  facts  concerning  the 
life-histories  of  beneficial  and  injurious  insects,  and 
the  stages  of  fungous  diseases  well  known,  may  be 
taught  and  learned  in  the  high  school  through  labora- 
tory, field  trips,  and  texts,  the  student  thereby  gain- 
ing practical  knowledge  for  farm  practice;  learning 
the  life-history  of  the  chinch  bug  and  how  to  combat 
it  with  the  oil-line,  and  good  cultural  methods;  learn- 
ing how  to  treat  oats  for  smut  and  to  practice  the 
method  in  the  laboratory;  these  are  all  very  practical, 
nor  does  the  teaching  require  farm  practice  to  give 
them  worth. 

Third,  before  there  can  be  improved  farm  prac- 
tice in  breeding  up  and  growing  a  productive  strain 
of  corn,  cattle,  or  chickens,  and  making  them  more 
resistant  to  disease  and  other  adverse  conditions, 
principles  and  methods  of  plant  and  animal  breeding 
must  first  be  taught  and  learned;  the  learning  and  the 
teaching  of  these  principles  are  as  practical  a  part 
of  agricultural  education  as  then*  application  in  farm 
practice. 

In  all  this  discussion  it  must  not  be  understood  that 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       103 

the  writer  does  not  appreciate  the  value  of  practical 
farm  work  as  a  method  of  teaching;  on  the  contrary, 
the  reader  should  understand  that  farm  practice  in 
the  application  of  the  principles  of  scientific  agricul- 
ture is  the  ideal  method  of  vocational  agricultural 
education.  The  point  to  be  emphasized  is  that  the 
scientific  principles  and  facts,  whether  they  be  learned 
from  books,  lectures,  laboratories,  or  farm  practice, 
are  an  essential  part  of  vocational  agriculture  and 
are  just  as  practical  as  the  farm  practice.  They  must 
be  learned  first  or  in  connection  with  the  practice. 

The  use  of  textbooks.  Since  the  teaching  of  any 
subject  should  be  a  systematic  business  and  proceed 
by  some  plan  in  a  more  or  less  organized  way,  text- 
books have  been  found  to  be  necessary  in  order  to 
assure  this  systematic  procedure.  This  principle  holds 
for  the  teaching  of  agriculture.  In  most  cases  the 
textbook  becomes  the  course  of  study;  hence,  the 
importance  of  good  texts  in  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture. A  good  text  in  agriculture  should  give  ample 
space  to  the  discussion  of  principles  and  practices  of 
the  phase  of  the  subject  under  consideration.  It  is 
better  to  give  the  information  which  the  student 
should  have,  in  the  pages  of  the  text,  than  to  be  con- 
stantly giving  references  to  which  the  student  sel- 
dom goes.  A  good  text  will  be  fully  illustrated  with 
attractive  pictures  that  supplement  the  subject-mat- 
ter. Laboratory  and  field  work  will  be  properly  pro- 
vided for,  with  definite  and  explicit  directions,  to 


104      THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

demonstrate,  afford  practice  in,  verify,  or  discover 
principles  to  be  taught.  A  good  text  will  be  scientifi- 
cally accurate,  clearly  and  forcibly  written,  and  pre- 
sent, especially  for  the  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  stock  information  well  established,  proved 
facts,  and  successful  practices. 

The  lecture  method.  The  lecture  method  in  agri- 
cultural teaching  is  extensively  used,  especially  in 
the  case  of  subjects  for  which  there  has  been  no  suit- 
able textbook.  This  method  is  generally  used  in  col- 
leges, and  this  fact  may  account  for  its  extensive  use 
in  secondary  schools.  It  happens  too  often  that  the 
secondary  teacher  gives  to  his  students  the  same 
material  he  received  in  college,  in  much  the  same 
manner  that  it  was  given  to  him.  Lecturing  before 
the  class  may  be  a  good  training  for  the  teacher,  but 
it  is  not  so  valuable  for  the  students.  The  more  the 
students  put  into  a  recitation  the  more  they  get  out 
of  it.  There  is  no  teaching  until  somebody  learns. 
There  is  less  likelihood  that  a  boy  or  girl  will  learn 
through  the  lecture  method  than  through  other 
methods  requiring  greater  activity  on  the  part  of  the 
student.  The  teacher's  task  is  an  easy  one,  when  he 
only  talks  on  a  subject  he  knows.  He  may  have  to 
use  methods  calling  for  greater  activities  among 
pupils,  and  more  labor  on  his  part,  if  any  real  teach- 
ing and  learning  are  done. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  supplement 
reports  and  recitations  of  the  students,  and  to  take 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       105 

part  in  the  discussions,  but  he  should  not  use  too  much 
of  the  time.  The  gift  of  silence  is  of  rare  worth  to  a 
teacher.  The  lecture  method  in  agricultural  teaching, 
even  in  secondary  schools,  however,  may  be  profit- 
ably used  to  vary  the  type  of  recitation,  and  to  give 
the  pupils  some  preparation  for  that  method  of  in- 
struction should  they  ever  attend  college.  At  some 
point  in  the  study  of  each  large  topic,  a  more  or  less 
formal  talk  or  lecture  may  well  be  given.  An  outline 
of  the  talk  should  be  placed  before  the  pupils,  and 
this  outline,  together  with  brief  notes  which  students 
should  take,  will  furnish  material  from  which  the 
students  should  "  write  up  "  the  lecture  in  perma- 
nent notebooks  provided  for  this  purpose.  When  the 
lecture  method  is  thus  sparingly  employed,  it  pro- 
vides variety  to  the  recitation,  opportunity  to  sum- 
marize and  review  subject-matter,  drill  in  note-tak- 
ing, and  a  concrete,  definite  form  of  assignment  in 
notebook  work  which  is  satisfactory  in  results  both 
to  the  instructor  and  students. 

Reports  and  class  recitations  by  students.  The 
more  general  the  participation  of  the  students  in  class 
recitation  the  better  it  will  be  for  the  students.  If 
classes  are  small  and  the  students  are  fairly  mature, 
informal  discussions  of  assigned  readings,  practical 
exercises,  field  trips,  and  home  projects  are  successful 
methods  in  classwork.  When  classes  are  large  and 
the  students  of  first-  or  second-year  standing,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  use  more  formal  methods.  It  may 


106       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

be  necessary  in  these  classes  to  draw  out  discussion 
with  questions  at  first  and  gradually  develop  the 
topic  method. 

The  teacher  may  supplement  the  recitations  from 
textbooks  and  other  general  class  assignments  by 
having  students  report  upon  special  topics.  Perhaps 
a  bulletin  of  general  interest  to  the  class  is  assigned 
to  a  student  who  has  special  interest  in  the  subject. 
A  subject  may  be  assigned  that  involves  a  study  of  a 
number  of  references,  or  the  report  may  cover  a  special 
project  or  problem  worked  out  at  home  or  in  the  lab- 
oratory, or  a  visit  of  agricultural  interest.  This  method 
should  be  used  to  develop  weak  students,  rather  than 
to  exercise  the  most  able  ones.  Too  much  of  the  class's 
time  should  not,  however,  be  taken  up  with  lengthy 
special  reports  by  individual  students. 

Good  class  recitation  methods  used  in  teaching 
other  subjects  and  the  general  rules  of  discipline  in  the 
school  should  prevail  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture. 

Use  of  illustrative  material.  If  agriculture  is  to  be 
given  a  permanent  place  in  the  curriculum,  it  must 
be  something  more  than  a  study  of  books.  Illustra- 
tive material,  laboratory  exercises,  and  home  projects 
must  be  utilized.  Instruction  must  proceed  from  these 
known  concrete  material  things  of  the  farm  to  the 
unknown,  abstract  principles  of  agricultural  science. 
Visualization  of  the  lessons,  made  possible  through 
the  use  of  illustrative  materials,  is  essential  in  arous- 
ing and  maintaining  interest,  as  well  as  in  fixing  valu- 
able information  in  the  mind. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       107 

Abundant  use  should  be  made  of  the  blackboard 
in  placing  before  students  outlines  of  lessons,  impor- 
tant points  to  be  remembered,  facts  involving  figures 
and  data,  expressed  in  graphic  ways.  Charts,  pic- 
tures, and  maps  serve  well  as  illustrative  material. 
Stereopticons  should  be  used  wherever  and  whenever 
available.  Much  agricultural  material,  such  as  plants, 
insects,  seeds,  animals,  etc.,  may  be  brought  into  the 
classroom.  Permanent  collections  of  plants,  insects, 
rocks,  soils,  seeds,  etc.,  in  the  form  of  an  agricultural 
museum,  are  often  the  source  of  much  helpful  illus- 
trative material  for  classroom  work.1 

Many  phases  of  agriculture  are  studied  most  profit- 
ably out-of-doors.  Growing  crops,  animals  in  barns 
or  pasture,  orchards  and  gardens,  farm  machinery  in 
operation,  —  all  these  are  best  studied  by  field  trips. 
These  trips  must,  however,  be  planned  and  supervised 
with  a  definite  aim  in  view,  if  they  are  to  have  educa- 
tional value. 

Laboratory  methods.  Agriculture  has  taken  many 
of  its  methods  from  the  teachings  of  other  sciences; 
hence,  it  has  utilized  the  laboratory  method  more  or 
less  from  the  beginning.  It  has  used  in  many  cases 
much  the  same  materials  and  apparatus  as  those  used 

1  For  directions  concerning  the  collection  and  mounting  of  this 
material  see  Collection  and  Preservation  of  Plant  Material  for  Use 
in  the  Study  of  Agriculture,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Farmers'  Bulletin  586  (1914),  and  Collection -and  Preservation 
of  Insects  and  Other  Material  for  Use  in  the  Study  of  Agriculture, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  606 
(1914). 


108       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

"in  other  sciences,  or  has  copied  in  the  high  schools  the 
exercises  used  in  the  agricultural  colleges.  As  a  result 
much  of  the  laboratory  work  in  agriculture  lacks  def- 
inite aim  and  application,  having  therefore  but  little 
educational  or  vocational  value.  For  the  sake  of  having 
laboratory  work,  which  is  thought  by  many  to  be  in- 
dispensable to  agriculture  in  order  to  give  educational 
value  to  the  course,  many  cheap  and  foreign  exercises 
are  often  dragged  in,  many  good  exercises  properly 
belonging  to  other  sciences  are  borrowed  under  the 
name  of  agriculture,  all  of  which  have  little  benefit 
from  the  standpoint  of  vocational  training  in  agricul- 
ture. It  is  possible  to  have  such  laboratory  work  as  will 
teach  practical  aspects  of  agriculture  and  yet  have 
all  the  educational  value  desired  by  the  more  con- 
servative of  school  men. 

The  laboratories  for  agriculture  need  not  be  elabo- 
rately and  expensively  equipped.  The  great  out-of- 
doors  in  the  open  country,  with  the  farms,  forests, 
fields,  orchards,  gardens,  crops,  live-stock,  houses,  and 
barns,  affords  the  greatest  laboratory  equipment  of  any 
science  in  any  school  on  earth.  In  addition  to  these 
only  a  few  well-selected  articles,  in  addition  to  what 
can  be  improvised,  need  be  added.  (See  Appendix.) 

For  convenience  in  discussing  laboratory  work,  the 
exercises  may  be  classified  as  follows:  Experiments, 
Verifications,  Demonstrations,  and  Practicums.1 

1  From  Agricultural  Education  Monthly,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  States  Relation  Service. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       109 

a.  Experiments.  Those  exercises  which  aim  to  dis- 
cover truth  new  to  the  student  are  classed  as  experi- 
ments. Agriculture  as  a  science  is  dependent  upon 
men  of  research,  who  through  their  investigations  are 
discovering  new  knowledge,  much  of  which  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  art  of  farming.  Much  of  this  knowledge  is 
now  available  in  books  and  bulletins,  so  that  students 
do  not  need  to  seek  it  from  primary  sources.  While 
it  is  not  the  function  of  the  high  school  to  discover  new 
truths  nor  even  to  train  scientists,  secondary  agricul- 
tural students  should  become  familiar  with  methods  of 
research,  especially  the  methods  used  in  the  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations,  which  have  such  an  impor- 
tant relation  to  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  this 
country. 

Exercises  may  be  planned  to  impress  upon  the 
students  the  following  essentials  of  an  experiment: 
(1)  A  clear  comprehension  of  the  object  of  an  experi- 
ment; (2)  an  open-minded  attitude  as  to  probable 
results;  (3)  control  of  all  factors  except  the  one  tested; 
and  (4)  accuracy  and  a  knowledge  of  probable  causes 
of  errors.  Experiments  may  be  performed  in  the  labo- 
ratory or  upon  the  farm.  For  example,  a  student  may 
test  the  effect  of  different  mulching  material  on  the 
conservation  of  moisture  with  pots  or  cans  of  soils  in 
the  laboratory.  The  scales  may  be  used  and  quanti- 
tative results  secured.  If  it  is  desired  to  learn  the 
effects  of  different  mulches  on  the  growing  crop,  the 
experiment  may  be  performed  with  a  crop  on  the 


110       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

school  or  home  farm.  In  either  case  the  student  has 
no  definite  knowledge  of  what  the  result  will  be.  It 
is  not  to  be  expected  that  experiments  will  form  a 
large  part  of  the  laboratory  work.  Those  given  as 
exercises  should  come  after  skill  has  been  developed 
through  verifications  as  suggested  below. 

b.  Verifications.    In  this  class  are  included   those 
exercises  which  aim  to  verify  or  confirm    facts  or 
principles  known  to  the  student.  Most  of  the  so-called 
experiments  outlined  for  secondary  students  really 
come  under  this  class  of  exercises.   Such  exercises  are 
valuable  in  satisfying  the  student  that  statements  of 
facts  and  principles  or  laws  are  true;  in  making  more 
vivid  impressions;  and  in  developing  skill  in  research 
methods.    A  student  may  read  in  a  bulletin  or  text 
that  nitrogen  has  a  certain  effect  on  plants  under 
certain  conditions.     In  testing  out  the  effect  in  the 
laboratory  or  in  the  field  he  not  only  becomes  assured 
of  its  truth,  but  he  also  has  the  fact  impressed  in  a 
manner  never  to  be  forgotten.  If  the  exercise  has  been 
planned  and  supervised  as  it  should  have  been,  he  will 
have  acquired  some  skill  and  developed  some  inter- 
est in  and  appreciation  of  the  work  of  investigators. 
The  high  school  should  afford  an  opportunity  for  young 
men  to  find  themselves.     The  laboratory  exercises 
should  be  conducted  in  such  a  manner  that  those 
who  have  a  natural  leaning  toward  research  may  have 
their  interest  stimulated  rather  than  checked. 

c.  Demonstrations.  These   include   those   exercises 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES        ill 

in  which  the  teacher  or  some  member  of  the  class 
uses  materials  and  apparatus  in  teaching  the  class 
principles  already  known  to  the  demonstrator.  In 
case  an  exercise  is  too  difficult  for  the  students,  or 
equipment  is  not  available  for  each  student,  it  may  be 
conducted  by  the  teacher,  or  some  one  who  has  had 
special  preparation,  for  the  benefit  of  the  class.  In  this 
there  is  an  application  of  the  inductive  method  of 
teaching.  Abstract  laws  and  principles  are  approached 
through  manipulation  of  materials  familiar  to  the 
student.  Each  step  should  be  clearly  understood  by 
the  student  so  that  when  the  demonstration  is  com- 
pleted proper  conclusions  may  be  drawn.  These  exer- 
cises have  the  same  effect  and  value  as  verifications 
except  that  the  student  does  not  get  the  practice 
and  the  interest  associated  with  doing  the  thing  himself. 
There  is  often  economy  of  time  as  well  as  materials 
in  a  demonstration,  as  everything  should  be  in  readi- 
ness before  the  exercise  begins. 

Demonstrations  may  be  made  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  students  how  a  practicum  is  to  be  carried  out. 
The  teacher  may  prune  or  spray  a  tree  or  judge  farm 
animals  before  the  class  in  order  that  they  may  have 
a  better  idea  of  how  they  are  to  do  the  work.  Another 
type  of  demonstration  will  be  considered  under  home 
projects. 

d.  Practicums.  Those  exercises  in  which  the  chief 
aim  is  the  acquiring  of  skill  and  in  which  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  student  is  applied  are  termed  "  practi- 


112       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

cums."  In  applying  the  vocational  aim  in  agricul- 
tural education  practice  becomes  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance. The  student  cannot  become  successful  as 
a  farmer  unless  he  becomes  skillful  in  applying  the 
knowledge  he  has  gained.  In  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture it  is  often  assumed  that  the  student  is  capable  of 
more  farm  practice  than  he  really  knows.  In  order 
to  be  satisfied  that  the  student  knows  the  art  as  well 
as  the  science  in  connection  with  the  different  branches 
of  agriculture  covered  by  the  course,  certain  require- 
ments may  be  made  which  involve  skill  in  practice. 
If  these  requirements  are  not  met  by  previous  train- 
ing of  the  student  or  by  school  practicums  the  work 
should  be  done  at  home.  For  example,  every  student 
should  know  how  to  plough  and  to  harness  and  handle 
a  two-,  three-,  or  four-horse  team  according  to  the 
practice  of  the  community. 

f  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  practice  in  con- 
nection with  the  chief  crops  of  the  section.  In  corn- 
growing  sections,  for  instance,  emphasis  should  be 
placed  on  skill  in  such  practices  as  selecting  and  testing 
seed,  husking  and  stringing  the  ears.  Students  of 
animal  husbandry  and  dairying  should  develop  skill 
in  judging  animals  as  an  aid  to  selection;  in  milking  a 
cow  in  a  skillful  and  sanitary  way;  in  running  a  sepa- 
rator and  cleaning  it  properly;  and  in  teaching  a  calf 
to  drink.  They  should  know  how  to  mix  rations  suit- 
able to  the  requirements  of  economic  production.  In 
poultry  husbandry,  the  student  may  be,  required  to 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       113 

run  an  incubator  and  brooder,  or  at  least  to  set  a  hen 
in  a'proper  manner  and  to  test  eggs  skillfully.  In  horti- 
culture, students  should  become  proficient  in  such 
practice  as  simple  budding  and  grafting,  making  of 
cuttings,  planting  of  trees,  pruning,  mixing  and  apply- 
ing sprays,  and  the  packing  of  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Whoever  is  to  direct  the  practicums  must  be  skill- 
ful and  thorough  in  every  detail.  If  the  teacher  does 
not  feel  competent  to  direct  the  work  in  a  line  of  agri- 
culture important  in  the  community,  he  should  call  for 
the  services  of  an  expert,  wherever  possible.  He  should 
realize  that  the  formation  of  right  habits  is  very  im- 
portant with  the  adolescent  who  is  getting  a  start 
toward  a  vocation.  Under  the  direction  of  a  good 
teacher,  this  work  becomes  more  than  an  application 
of  knowledge  and  drill  toward  skill;  it  becomes  a 
medium  through  which  the  student  may  express  the 
best  that  is  in  him. 

Laboratory  and  field  work  should  be  a  definite  part 
of  each  course,  and  definite  time  provided  for  it.  The 
proportion  of  the  time  devoted  to  this  work  will  depend 
upon  the  course  to  some  extent.  Such  courses  as 
dairying  and  farm  mechanics  may  be  mostly  practi- 
cal work  while  other  courses  may  be  taught  principally 
in  the  classroom.  As  a  rule,  when  a  subject  is  given  five 
days  a  week,  two  of  these  are  devoted  to  laboratory 
and  field  work,  the  periods  for  such  work  being  double 
the  length  of  the  class  recitation.  It  is  preferable  to 
have  the  practical  work  come  at  the  end  of  the  day, 


114       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

as  some  exercises  may  run  overtime.  If  the  students 
do  not  have  to  attend  a  class  after  the  practical  work, 
they  will  not  have  to  change  clothes  again  or  be  con- 
cerned about  their  personal  appearance.  All  exercises 
should  be  planned  ahead,  so  that  materials  and  equip- 
ment may  be  provided  and  in  working  order  and  all 
necessary  arrangements  made  for  work  in  the  field.  Stu- 
dents should  be  notified  of  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be 
done,  so  that  they  may  dress  suitably  for  the  work  they 
are  to  do.  Most  of  the  practice  at  school  should  be 
given  as  class  practicums,  i.e.,  the  students  doing  the 
work  as  a  class.  The  home  work  should  be  largely  indi- 
vidual. It  may  be  a  problem  as  to  how  to  secure  the 
best  results  with  required  home  work.  At  some  schools 
special  credit  is  given  for  home  practicums  and  home 
projects.  The  contest  idea  may  be  used  to  advantage 
with  students  of  high-school  age.  A  day  may  be  set 
apart  for  agricultural  exhibits  and  contests  covering 
such  work  as  judging  farm  animals  and  farm  products, 
rope  work,  fruit  packing,  stringing  of  corn  ears,  etc. 
Many  of  the  home  practicums  will  become  features 
of  the  home  projects  where  the  project  plan  is  in 
operation. 

Teaching  farm  craft.  Among  the  educational 
changes  which  may  grow  out  of  the  present  world  war 
is  the  attempt  to  teach  farm  craft  in  its  most  practi- 
cal aspect  to  the  boys  of  the  secondary  schools.  The 
United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve  is  an  organiza- 
tion effected,  under  the  statutory  power  of  the  Na- 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       115 

tional  Department  of  Labor,  to  enroll,  from  patriotic 
motives,  boys  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inclusive,  for 
productive  service  on  the  farms.  The  appeal  of  this 
organization  is  strong,  especially  to  city  boys.  It 
often  seems  necessary,  in  order  to  get  the  more  com- 
monplace tasks  achieved,  that  they  must  be  recog- 
nized, dignified,  and  credited  by  some  institutional  or 
organized  body.  The  United  States  Boys'  Working  Re- 
serve is  such  an  organization,  and  proposes,  through 
honorable  recognition  and  suitable  rewards  for  serv- 
ice, to  enlist  boys  in  the  work  of  food  production  and 
conservation  by  helping  farmers  in  such  labor  as  may 
be  called  farm  craft.  Large  numbers  of  boys  are  en- 
listing for  this  service.  Several  educational  problems 
and  opportunities  for  the  high  schools  arise  at  this 
point. 

1.  What  constitutes  the  essential  features  of  work 
in  ordinary  good  farm  practice,  skilled  and  un- 
skilled farm  craft? 

2.  How  is  this  farm  craft  material  to  be  organized 
into  teachable  form  adapted  to  school  conditions? 

8.  With  what  success  will  high-school  teachers  pre- 
sent this  work,  and  the  boys  get  it? 
4.  As  measured  by  the  work  of  the  boys  who  have 
come  from  such  school  courses,  are  we  justified 
in  attempting  to  teach  farm  craft? 
In  Illinois  these  problems  are  being  attacked.   The 
writer  sent  a  questionnaire  to  one  hundred  successful 
farmers  of  the  State  to  ascertain  what  they  considered 


116       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  essential  farm-craft  work  in  good  farm  practice, 
and  to  learn  what  they  thought  of  the  value  of  under- 
taking to  teach  this  work  in  the  high  school.  Opinions 
on  these  matters  were  also  sought  from  as  many  ex- 
perts in  the  agricultural  college.  There  was  a  general 
agreement  that  the  following  topics  should  be  included 
under  farm  craft:  grooming  the  horses;  hitching  and 
unhitching  horses;  driving  and  handling  horses;  feed- 
ing and  care  of  horses;  milking  the  cows;  feeding  the 
pigs;  handling  machinery  in  ploughing,  seeding,  cul- 
tivating, and  harvesting;  mending  harness;  splicing 
ropes;  tying  knots;  repairing  fences  and  gates;  using 
properly  and  caring  for  hand-tools  and  machinery; 
hoeing,  weeding,  etc.,  in  garden  and  field;  feeding 
all  farm  animals;  and  doing  the  chores. 

This  list,  as  may  be  seen,  includes  many  subdivi- 
sions requiring  various  degrees  of  skilled  and  unskilled 
labor.  With  but  few  exceptions  the  farmers  and  college 
men  believed  that  the  high  school  could  help  to  prepare 
boys  for  greater  usefulness  along  these  practical  farm- 
craft  lines.  There  was  a  consensus  of  opinion  that 
specially  prepared  circulars,  giving  information,  illus- 
trations, graphic  instructions  and  definite  farm-craft 
practice  while  in  school,  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
teacher,  utilizing  the  resources  of  the  community  as 
far  as  possible,  would  be  the  best  methods  of  instruc- 
tion to  use.  Accordingly  the  Illinois  Division  of  the 
United  States  Boys'  Working  Reserve  requested  the 
State  College  of  Agriculture  to  prepare  such  a  series 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       117 

of  farm-craft  circulars,  and  the  State  Council  of  De- 
fense secured  the  cooperation  of  the  high  schools  of 
the  State  to  undertake  this  instruction.  In  order  to  en- 
courage and  facilitate  this  work,  all  school  authorities 
in  charge  of  high  schools  were  urged  to  adopt  rules  and 
formulate  plans  by  which  boys  shall  not  only  receive 
instruction  in  what  has  been  called  the  language  of  the 
farm,  but  that  no  boy  should  forfeit  any  credit  or 
receive  any  handicap  in  his  school  because  of  absence 
from  his  classes  during  his  sojourn  upon  the  farm. 

Circulars  were  prepared  by  the  faculty  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  on  the  following  topics:  — 

1.  When  the  City  Boy  Goes  to  the  Farm. 

2.  Doing  the  Chores. 

3.  Grooming  the  Horse. 

4.  Hitching  and  Unhitching  the  Horse. 

5.  Driving  the  Horse. 

6.  Feeding  the  Farm  Work  Horse. 

7.  Handling  the  Plough,  Disc,  and  Harrow. 

8.  Seeding  and  Making  the  Seed  Bed. 

9.  Destroying  the  Weeds. 

10.  Making  Hay. 

11.  Shocking  Grain. 

12.  Raising  Potatoes. 

13.  Using  Hand-Tools. 

14.  Mending  Harness,  Splicing  Rope,  Tying  Knots,  etc. 

15.  Making  the  Farm  Garden. 

16.  Milking  the  Cows. 

17.  Feeding  and  Caring  for  the  Pigs. 

18.  Caring  for  Sheep  in  Summer. 

19.  Summer  Care  of  Cattle. 

20.  Poultry  Work. 


118       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

21.  Keeping  up  Fences  and  Gates. 

22.  Work  in  the  Orchard. 

23.  Rainy-Day  Work. 

24.  The  "  Why  "  of  Proper  Steps  in  Handling  Soil. 

25.  Learning  the  Vocabulary  of  the  Farm. 

In  the  preparation  of  these  courses  each  author  has 
aimed  to  give  the  minimum  of  technical  agricultural 
science  necessary  to  furnish  a  motive  and  an  intelligent 
background  for  the  work,  and  a  maximum  of  practical 
directions,  of  "  What  and  How  to  Do  "  the  manual 
work  of  the  farm. 

Suggestions  are  made  in  each  case  for  the  specific 
school  exercises  which  are  feasible,  in  order  to  give  the 
boys  real  practice  in  lines  related  to  farm  craft. 

It  becomes  evident  at  once  that  there  are  many  dif- 
ficulties in  the  way  in  teaching  farm-craft  work  in  the 
school.  Our  teachers  are  not  usually  fanners  and  farm- 
ing is  not  done  at  school.  If,  however,  the  teachers 
have  had  farm  experience  and  are  willing  to  undertake 
this  instruction,  and  if  the  proper  facts  and  directions 
for  the  practical  work  are  organized  and  presented,  — 
furthermore,  if  teachers  will  take  the  boys  to  farms, 
livery  barns,  implement  stores,  and  encourage  them 
to  take  every  opportunity  to  practice  farm  work,  even 
on  a  small  scale,  —  then  such  a  course  as  here  proposed 
will  be  at  least  a  "  bit  "  of  help  to  the  boy  as  he  goes 
to  the  farm  to  perform  his  service  in  the  work  of  food 
production  and  conservation. 

The  farm  craft  course  may  be  supplemented  by  a 


general  reading  course  from  bulletins,  circulars,  the 
best  farm  papers,  and  agricultural  books,  or  a  more  sys- 
tematic general  course  from  textbooks  may  be  given, 
but  all  this  reading  work  should  not  be  over-empha- 
sized, nor  take  up  too  much  of  the  boys'  time.  At 
least  three  fourths  of  the  students'  time  in  such  a  farm- 
craft  course  should  be  spent  in  actual  practice  in  farm 
operations  or  with  farm  materials.  The  Illinois  Farm- 
Craft  Course  has  not  been  in  operation  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  to  formulate  any  conclusions  as  to  the 
success  it  will  have  in  the  schools,  or  with  what  suc- 
cess it  will  train  the  boys  for  increased  usefulness  in 
actual  farm  work.  The  signs  of  the  times  are  promis- 
ing, and  there  seems  little  doubt  but  that  a  farm- 
craft  course  has  a  useful  place  in  the  agricultural 
curriculum  of  the  high  schools. 

Home  projects  in  secondary-school  agriculture.  In 
several  States,  particularly  those  giving  State  aid  for 
vocational  work  in  secondary  schools,  a  distinction  is 
made  between  agriculture  ordinarily  taught  in  the 
high  school  and  vocational  agriculture.  If  the  faith 
of  the  people  in  agricultural  education  is  to  be  main- 
tained, there  should  be  only  vocational  agriculture  in 
the  high  school.  For  those  who  may  later  follow  agri- 
culture as  a  life-work,  the  high-school  course  should  be 
a  direct  preparation  for  that  work.  Even  though  it  be 
given  a  vocational  emphasis  for  those  who  will  not  take 
up  agricultural  pursuits,  the  course  will  contribute 
to  the  liberal  education  of  these  students  in  somewhat 


120       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  same  way  that  English  will  contribute  to  the  gen- 
eral education  of  those  who  make  agriculture  their  vo- 
cation. 

As  our  schools  are  now  equipped  and  organized,  it  is 
extremely  difficult,  to  say  the  least,  to  make  agriculture 
vocational  to  the  extent  of  giving  farm  practice  with 
plants  and  animals  on  real  land  and  under  practical 
farm-management  conditions.  To  be  sure,  it  is  true 
that  to  teach  the  sciences  which  underlie  and  control 
successful  farm  practice  is  good,  practical  vocational 
work;  yet  neither  the  principles  nor  the  science  of  agri- 
culture become  the  real  possession  of  the  student  until 
he  has  worked  them  out  in  successful  farm  practice. 

Until  we  can  have  a  school  farm  for  the  high  school 
and  so  organize  the  course  of  study  that  students  of 
agriculture  may  get  real  practice  in  farm  production 
and  management  under  all-year  instruction,  the  home- 
project  feature  of  school  agriculture  is  the  best  sub- 
stitute for  practical  instruction  which  can  be  given. 
Under  this  plan  the  instructor  in  agriculture  outlines 
certain  definite  agricultural  projects  to  be  carried  on 
at  the  homes  of  the  students,  as  a  part  of  the  course  in 
agriculture. 

Massachusetts  was  the  first  State  to  give  State  aid 
to  vocational  agriculture  based  upon  the  home-project 
plan.  In  1911  the  State  Legislature  made  State  funds 
available  for  the  establishment  of  agricultural  depart- 
ments in  secondary  schools.  The  agricultural  instruc- 
tor, whose  salary  is  paid  partly  by  the  State  and  partly 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       121 

by  the  local  community,  must  be  a  specially  qualified 
teacher  who  devotes  his  entire  attention  to  agriculture. 
Such  teachers  are  employed  for  the  entire  year,  and 
the  summer  months  are  spent  in  supervising  the  home 
projects  of  students.  The  classwork  is  centered  around 
the  home  project  which  is  required  of  each  agricultural 
student.  Since  the  home-project  plan  was  introduced 
into  Massachusetts,  the  States  of  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey,  and  Indiana  have  based  school 
agriculture  largely  upon  the  home-project  plan. 

The  project  as  a  basis  for  methods  of  instruction. 
According  to  Dr.  W.  W.  Charters,  of  the  University  of 
Illinois,  a  project  is  a  reflective  act  carried  on  in  its 
natural  setting.  The  project  itself  is  a  large  problem 
carried  over  into  action.  It  may  be  composed  of  a 
group  of  problems,  which  constitute  subdivisions  of 
the  project.  The  project  is  the  normal  life  situation. 
In  school  we  often  take  these  problems  out  of  their 
natural  setting  in  the  project  and  study  them  one  by 
one.  The  tendency  is  to  teach  the  problems  in  isolated 
groups  rather  than  as  related  to  some  life  situation. 

The  chief  educational  function  of  a  project  is  to 
translate  information  into  conduct.  To  illustrate,  let 
us  take  potato-growing  as  a  project.  In  the  life  situa- 
tion, in  the  natural  setting,  there  would  be  a  flow  of 
certain  activities  and  problems  such  as  preparation 
of  the  ground,  planting,  cultivating,  relationships  to 
the  home,  etc.  An  attack  of  the  potato  beetle  appears. 
Here  a  special  problem  arises,  calling  for  information 


122       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

as  to  methods  of  control.  Other  interests  and  activi- 
ties stop  for  the  time  being,  and  the  student  sets  about 
to  get  the  necessary  information  and  to  apply  this 
knowledge  in  the  solution  of  the  problem.  After  this 
problem  is  solved,  the  activities  continue  to  the 
completion  of  the  project.  Everything  connected  with 
the  process  is  in  its  natural  setting  and  relates  to 
definite  behavior  and  degrees  of  interest. 

In  the  usual  school  situation,  studying  potato- 
raising,  the  student  is  related  to  a  certain  flow  of 
activities  and  interests,  such  as  study  hours,  recess, 
classes,  books,  groups  of  pupils,  attitude  toward  the 
teacher,  routine  of  the  school,  etc.  The  special  prob- 
lem of  the  control  of  the  potato  beetle  comes  in  the 
course  of  study.  The  information  as  to  the  methods  of 
combating  the  beetle  is  acquired  by  the  pupil,  and  the 
problem  is  solved,  intellectually.  The  flow  of  school 
activities  continues,  and  throughout  the  whole  process 
a  degree  of  interest  may  be  manifest,  but  it  is  quite 
likely  to  be  considerably  less  than  in  the  former  case. 
The  project  method  attempts  to  reinstate  the  natural 
situation  in  the  educational  process.  Conduct  or 
behavior  is  here  the  aim  of  education,  rather  than 
information.  In  the  project,  intellectual  matters  flow 
out  of  conduct,  and  flow  back  into  conduct.  Conduct 
is  a  steady,  flowing  stream  in  which  problematic  situa- 
tions arise,  are  solved,  and  the  stream  flows  on. 

The  chief  values  of  a  project  are:  —  i 

(1)  It  carries  information  over  into  conduct. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       123 

(2)  It  arouses  interest,  since  there  are  many 
reservoirs  from  which  interest  may  flow,  being 
tied  up  with  life  situations. 

After  one  has  learned  the  theory  and  principles  of 
how  to  do  a  thing,  there  is  much  left  to  be  done  in 
order  to  carry  it  over  and  apply  it  in  the  actual  life 
situation.  The  process  of  carrying  out  a  theory  or 
given  information  is  often  as  problematic  as  the  the- 
ory itself.  The  student  often  needs  as  much  assistance 
in  the  actual  carrying-out  of  the  technique  of  a  project 
as  in  getting  the  necessary  information. 

Farmers  often  report  that  students  of  school  agri- 
culture are  frequently  helpless  when  they  come  to  the 
farms  to  do  the  farm-craft  work  necessary  in  successful 
practice.  In  order  to  get  the  complete  benefits  of  a 
successful  project,  —  the  information  carried  over  into 
action,  —  further  assistance  must  be  given  the  student 
in  this  process,  and  it  is  at  this  point  that  the  project 
method  affords  the  best  help. 

The  home  project  when  applied  to  instruction  in 
elementary  and  secondary  agriculture,  includes  each 
of  the  following  requisites,  according  to  Mr.  C.  II. 
Lane,  of  the  States  Relation  Service  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture:  (1)  There  must 
be  a  plan  for  work  at  home  covering  a  season  of  more 
or  less  extended  period  of  time;  (2)  it  must  be  a  part 
of  the  instruction  in  agriculture  of  the  school;  (3)  there 
must  be  a  problem  more  or  less  new  to  the  pupil; 
(4)  the  parents  and  pupil  should  agree  with  the  teacher 


124       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

upon  the  plan;  (5)  some  competent  person  must  super- 
vise the  home  work;  (6)  detailed  records  of  time, 
method,  cost,  and  income  must  be  honestly  kept;  and 
(7)  a  written  report  based  on  the  record  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  teacher. 

A  distinction  should  be  made  between  home  pro- 
jects and  the  comparatively  simple  exercises  discussed 
under  laboratory  methods.  These  exercises  for  the 
most  part  are  utilized  to  illustrate  and  apply  some 
principle,  or  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  skill  in  some 
farm  operation.  A  project  to  be  worthy  of  the  name 
should  involve  skill  in  many  operations,  the  applica- 
tion of  a  number  of  principles  and  problems  of  gen- 
eral management.  To  accomplish  this  it  should  cover 
a  branch  of  farming  that  will  extend  over  a  compara- 
tively long  period  of  time.  As  it  is  to  be  a  part  of  the 
instruction  in  agriculture  it  should  have  a  definite 
relation  to  the  course  of  study.  Growing  an  acre  of 
corn  would  mean  the  application  of  many  principles 
of  agriculture  and  would  involve  skill  in  general  farm 
operations  as  well  as  those  connected  especially  with 
corn  culture,  hence  it  would  be  a  suitable  project  for 
a  student  in  general  agriculture  or  agronomy.  Caring 
for  an  orchard  or  a  garden  would  be  a  suitable  project 
for  a  student  in  a  class  in  horticulture  because  it  would 
involve  many  of  the  principles  and  practices  of  that 
phase  of  farming.  Students  in  animal  husbandry  may 
select  as  projects  the  care  of  a  flock  of  poultry,  or  of  one 
or  more  pigs  in  which  the  general  principles  of  animal 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       125 

production  will  be  applied.  If  the  project  is  to  have 
the  highest  educational  value  it  must  involve  new 
problems.  A  student  may  grow  an  acre  of  corn  year 
after  year  and  continue  to  learn  something  new,  but  if 
the  work  of  the  first  year  has  been  directed  properly 
it  will  have  far  greater  educational  value  than  that  of 
the  succeeding  years.  After  growing  corn  one  year, 
the  student  may  better  take  up  some  other  crop,  or 
better  still  an  entirely  different  phase  of  farming. 

Parents  should  be  interested  in  the  pupil's  home 
project.  The  boy  and  the  teacher  should  consult  with 
them  from  the  beginning.  The  teacher  should  explain 
to  the  parents  that  agricultural  instruction  is  conducted 
on  the  principle  that  there  are  still  educational  op- 
portunities at  home,  and  that  the  school,  in  order 
properly  to  perform  its  functions,  must  make  use  of 
these  opportunities.  The  parents  must  be  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  idea  that  the  home  and  school  need  to 
work  hand  in  hand  to  offer  the  best  educational  ad- 
vantages to  the  pupil. 

The  following  extracts  from  a  letter  written  by  H.  B. 
Allen,  of  LeRoy  High  School,  New  York,  to  the  par- 
ents of  the  boys  studying  agriculture  in  his  school, 
illustrate  an  excellent  way  in  which  to  supplement  per- 
sonal interviews  with  the  parents  in  an  effort  to  enlist 
their  cooperation:  — 

Instruction  in  agriculture  in  the  high  school  cannot  pre- 
tend to  be  complete  and  sufficient  when  it  restricts  its  field 
to  the  classroom  and  laboratory.  Instruction  in  such  a  sub- 


126       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

ject  deals  with  living  and  definite  objects,  although  treating 
considerably  of  the  general  theories  and  practices  relating 
to  the  same.  Only  in  so  far  as  the  teaching  is  connected  with 
everyday  occurrences  and  the  application  of  the  general 
principles  is  demonstrated  will  the  instruction  prove  effec- 
tive. The  laboratory  work  and  field  trips  are  efforts  in  this 
direction.  However  well  these  may  be  conducted,  the  teach- 
ing has  not  proved  effective  until  the  pupil  has  solved  some 
problem  related  to  the  subject  and  tested  the  thoroughness 
of  his  knowledge.  As  a  practical  test  the  home  project  has 
been  decided  upon. 

Each  pupil  who  takes  work  in  agriculture  is  expected  to 
take  up  a  home  project.  The  project  must  be  related  to  the 
subject  which  is  being  studied  that  year  in  school.  Because 
of  the  seasonal  nature  of  home  projects  they  are  necessarily 
being  continued  both  during  school  and  after  school  has 
closed.  The  instruction  is  so  planned  that  school  time  will 
be  omitted  and  outside  time  credited  in  order  that  no 
injustice  may  occur. 

The  different  kinds  of  home  projects  may  be  grouped  as 
follows:  — 

1.  Productive  projects. 

2.  Experimental  or  demonstration  projects. 

3.  Improvement  or  construction  projects. 

Group  1  includes  those  projects  having  for  their  aim  the 
successful  raising  and  care  of  a  crop,  animals,  etc.  Group  2 
is  composed  of  those  projects  which  discover  or  demonstrate 
some  practical  application  of  the  theories  and  practices  stud- 
ied. Group  3  is  a  large  indefinite  group  which  includes  nearly 
all  not  in  1  and  2.  Remodeling  a  poultry-house,  beauti- 
fying the  home  grounds,  would  be  good  examples  of  this 
group. 

The  pupil  should  choose  some  project  satisfactory  to  the 
parents  and  approved  by  his  instructor.  It  is  intended  that 
these  projects  shall  not  in  any  way  become  an  unjust  bur- 
den on  the  pupil  or  the  home.  Unreturned  expense  is  unde- 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       127 

sirable,  and  for  this  reason  productive  projects  are  sug- 
gested as  more  feasible. 

It  is  intended  to  make  the  project  a  definite  problem  in 
itself.  It  is  best  that  the  work  be  done  in  so  far  as  possible 
by  the  pupil  himself.  This  is  not  to  restrict  parental  in- 
terest, but  rather  to  prevent  any  lack  of  responsibility  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil.  In  conducting  the  project  the  pupil 
will  be  supplied  with  all  necessary  blanks  to  keep  records, 
costs,  etc.,  in  order  that  a  complete  summary  of  production 
and  profit  may  result.  The  instructor  intends  to  keep 
thoroughly  in  touch  with  every  pupil  carrying  on  a  project. 

In  conclusion,  let  it  be  stated  that  if  a  project  can  be 
adjusted  so  as  to  fit  into  the  customary  routine  of  duties  of 
the  pupil  at  home,  such  conditions  are  ideal.  The  project, 
however,  must  be  a  unit  in  itself  and  not  neglected  or  over- 
looked because  it  may  be  routine.  Remember  that  the  first 
object  of  the  project  is  primarily  to  test  the  instruction 
gained  by  the  pupil,  and  to  reinforce  the  instruction  through 
practical  experience. 

The  home-project  plan  has  not  been  used  sufficiently 
long  to  have  established  a  very  definite  order  of  pro- 
cedure. There  are  many  problems  arising  in  connec- 
tion with  the  efforts  to  apply  the  home-project  methods 
in  secondary-school  agriculture.  The  following  prob- 
lems are  mentioned  by  Mr.  Barrows  in  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin 346,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture: — 

1.  Supervision  of  the  projects. 

2.  Fitting  the  projects  to  the  course  of  study. 
S.  Giving  credit  for  projects. 

4.  Contests,  prizes,  and  awards. 

5.  To  what  extent  shall  projects  yield  a  profit. 


128       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

6.  Securing  cooperation  of  parents. 

7.  Substitutes  for  home  projects. 

8.  Preparation  of  teachers. 

a.  Suggestions  for  the  control  of  home  projects.  In 
order  to  meet  and  solve  these  problems  satisfactorily 
for  the  time  being  at  least,  the  instructor  in  agriculture 
must  be  guided  by  principles  and  have  pretty  definite 
convictions  as  a  working  basis  for  procedure.  The 
following  suggestions  may  be  helpful:  — 

(1)  Project  work  when  conducted  properly  is  ex- 
pensive, and  supervision  must  be  provided.    Schools 
which  cannot  afford  to  hire  an  instructor  for  the  full 
year,  may  well  hesitate  about  adopting  the  plan,  for 
summer  supervision  is  most  important  to  the  success 
of  home-project  work.    The  teacher  should  not  scat- 
ter his  attention  over  too  wide  a  range  of  projects. 
Local  agricultural  conditions  will  govern  the  number 
and  choice  of  projects  feasible. 

(2)  If  the  agriculture  given  is  a  general  one-year 
course,  the  projects  may  be  more  varied  and  several 
different  ones  carried  on  by  members  of  the  same  class; 
if,  however,  the  course  is  a  special  one,  such  as  agron- 
omy,  animal   husbandry,  or  horticulture,  then  the 
projects  should  be  selected  within  the  field  of  study. 
It  is  a  question  whether  the  work  and  study  of  agri- 
culture should  grow  out  of  the  project,  or  whether  the 
project  should  develop  from  and  supplement  the  agri- 
cultural study.  In  the  high-school  courses  it  has  been 
found  more  practical  to  follow  the  latter  method.   Such 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       129 

time  as  seems  necessary  to  the  successful  progress  of 
the  project  is  given  in  the  regular  classwork  in  agri- 
culture. 

(3)  The  crediting  of  home-project  work  presents  a 
difficult  problem.   It  may  be  feasible  in  some  cases  to 
withhold  the  credit  in  agriculture  until  the  student 
has  carried  out  the  project  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
instructor.  In  other  cases  the  project  has  been  graded 
on  the  same  basis  as  the  class-work  in  agriculture,  and 
an  average  of  the  two  grades  taken  to  make  up  the 
final  grade.  Many  instructors  weigh  the  various  proj- 
ects in  terms  of  units  of  agriculture,  and  add  from  one 
fourth  to  one  unit  to  the  pupil's  high-school  credits 
for  the  satisfactory  completion  of  a  home  project.   In 
the  writer's  opinion  this  is  a  better  way  to  give  credit 
for  home-project  work  in  agriculture. 

(4)  The  project  work  must  be  related  to  the  high- 
school  instruction  as  a  particular  feature  of  it,  yet 
those  students  carrying  on  the  home  projects  may  well 
be  organized  into  an  agricultural  society  or  club,  and  af- 
filiated with  the  State  boys'  and  girls'  club  movement, 
or  some  other  national  organization.  The  contest  fea- 
tures including  prizes  and  awards  need  not  be  em- 
phasized in  the  high-school  project  work,  but  with- 
out detracting  from  the  educational  or  vocational 
value  of  the  work,  these  club  ideas  may  be  used  with 
success. 

(5)  The  project  undertaken  in  high-school  agricul- 
ture should  be  considered  worth  while  by  the  student. 


130       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

It  must  require  effort  and  management,  and  be  prof- 
itable withal.  When  a  student  carries  on  a  successful 
project  he  should  have  hope  of  some  reward  in  addition 
to  the  school  credit  he  may  gain.  No  false  standards, 
such  as  are  often  given  by  high  awards,  should  be  set 
before  the  student,  but  the  true  standard  of  success 
and  productive  project. 

(6)  In  all  efforts  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the 
parents  in  home-project  work,  the  teacher  will  ac- 
complish more  by  working  quietly  to  win  the  con- 
fidence and  good-will  of  the  parents  and  patrons  than 
he  will  by  making  arbitrary  rules.  A  campaign  of  edu- 
cation among  the  parents  is  often  necessary  before 
home-project  methods  can  be  successfully  used. 

(7)  If  there  are  students  of  agriculture  who  do  not 
live  on  the  farm  or  who  do  not  have  resources  avail- 
able for  carrying  on  a  home  project,  it  is  usually  pos- 
sible to  secure  land  or  animals  from  others  to  carry 
on  the  work.   Caring  for  dairy  cows,  gardening  on 
vacant  lots,  pruning  and  spraying  orchards,  etc.,  are 
projects    which   may   be   undertaken    on    a   profit- 
sharing  basis  with  owners. 

(8)  The  lack  of  preparation  of  teachers  to  supervise 
home-project  work  is~perhaps  the  greatest  problem  at 
present.  Teachers  who  are  prepared  to  succeed  in  the 
supervision  of  home  projects  are  much  in  demand.  It 
is  worth  while  for  teachers  of  agriculture  to  make  an 
extra  effort  to  prepare  themselves  for  this  phase  of  vo- 
cational agriculture.     In  several  of  the  agricultural 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       131 

colleges  the  departments  of  agricultural  education 
are  now  giving  special  attention  to  practical  training 
for  project  work. 

b.  List  of  home  projects  suggested.  Without  attempt- 
ing to  give  weighted  credit-unit  value  or  to  classify 
the  projects  upon  any  basis  of  time  or  method  of  pro- 
cedure, the  following  list  of  home  projects  is  sub- 
mitted: — 

1.  Equipping  a  farm  boy's  business  office. 

2.  Poultry-raising. 

3.  Keeping  dairy  cows. 

4.  Raising  a  litter  of  pigs. 

5.  Raising  a  calf. 

6.  Growing  an  acre  of  corn. 

7.  Growing  alfalfa. 

8.  Soil-fertility  project. 

9.  Growing  Sudan  grass. 

10.  Vegetable  gardening. 

11.  Tomato-raising. 

12.  Potato-raising. 

13.  Growing  cucumbers.   ' 

14.  Growing  strawberries. 

15.  Growing  sweet-peas. 

16.  Sweet-corn  culture. 

17.  Beautifying  home  grounds. 

18.  Care  of  fruit  trees. 

19.  Starting  a  young  orchard. 

20.  Planting  a  catalpa  grove. 

21.  Some  insect  life-history  studies. 

22.  Making  concrete  walks. 

23.  Making  a  farm  gate. 

24.  Farm,  home,  and  community  survey. 

(See  Appendix  for  plans  of  home  projects.) 


132       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Supervised  farm  practice  under  the  Smith-Hughes 
Law.  The  Smith-Hughes  Law  providing  Federal  funds 
to  the  States  for  the  salaries  of  teachers  of  vocational 
agriculture  hi  secondary  schools,  states,  in  section  19, 
"  That  such  schools  shall  provide  for  directed  or  super- 
vised practice  hi  agriculture,  either  on  a  farm  provided 
for  by  the  school  or  other  farm  for  at  least  six  months." 
This  practical  work  may  be  either  regular  farm  occu- 
pations or  special  home  projects  as  referred  to  above. 
Regular  farm  work  for  this  purpose  implies  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  regular  farm  duties  carried  on  by  the 
pupil  in  accordance  with  outlines  or  instructions  pre- 
pared by  the  supervisor,  corresponding  reports  by  the 
pupils  to  the  supervisor,  and  actual  visitation  by  the 
supervisor  to  inspect  the  pupil's  work  and  to  confer 
with  him. 

The  home-project  work,  as  described  in  the  fore- 
going pages,  supplies  one  form  of  supervised  farm 
practice  under  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes 
Law.  The  following  excerpt  from  Bulletin  8  of  the 
Illinois  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  relating  to 
the  supervision  of  regular  farm  work  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  school  course,  was  a  suggestion  of  the  author 
in  an  approach  to  one  solution  of  this  problem:  — 

In  order  to  provide  more  definite  standards  and  better 
organization  of  the  supervised  practice  work  in  agriculture, 
we  may  classify  the  farm  operations  commonly  found  in  the 
State,  under  the  following  systems  or  kinds  of  farming:  — 

1.  Grain  farming. 

£.  Live-stock  farming. 


SOME  METHODS   AND  PRINCIPLES       133 

3.  Dairy  fanning. 

4.  Truck  farming. 

5.  Fruit  farming. 

6.  Poultry  farming. 

7.  General  farming. 

Should  a  student  in  the  vocational  course  in  agriculture 
choose  to  do  his  six  months'  supervised  farm  practice  in 
helping  his  father  or  as  a  hired  laborer  in  any  one  of  these 
systems  of  farming,  then,  in  addition  to  the  certificate  of 
work  signed  by  the  parent  or  guardian  to  the  teacher  of 
agriculture,  the  student  should  have  a  special  notebook  in 
which  to  write,  each  week  of  the  twenty-four,  the  answer  to  one 
of  the  twenty-four  questions  here  submitted  for  the  kind  of 
farming  he  is  doing.  The  supervisor  should  visit  the  student 
at  least  once  each  week,  and  the  principal  topic  for  discussion 
or  demonstration  for  the  visitation  should  be  the  point  in 
question  to  be  answered  that  week  in  the  student's  notebook. 

The  following  points  suggested  for  the  various  systems  of 
farming  may  not  come  up  in  actual  order  of  farm  operations 
as  here  listed,  but  the  supervisor  should  designate  such 
questions  for  his  visit  and  for  the  written  paragraph  answers 
in  the  student's  notebook  as  apply  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
the  work  the  student  is  doing  on  the  farm  at  the  time.  A 
permanent  notebook  which  may  be  labeled,  "The  Smith- 
Hughes  Supervised  Farm  Practice  Notebook,"  should  be 
used  for  this  work.  A  few  introductory  pages  should  be 
written  describing  the  farm,  the  system  of  farming,  and  the 
general  plan  of  the  student  and  supervisor  for  the  season. 
It  would  be  well  to  set  aside  pages  for  a  diary  of  operations 
and  the  work  certified  to  each  week  by  the  parent. 

Suggestive  Points  for  the  Supervised  Farm  Practice  in  Systems 
of  Grain  Farming 

1.  Meaning  of  crop  rotation;  values  of  crop  rotation;  the 
rotation  used  on  the  farm  where  the  boy  works. 

2.  Leading  legume  crops  of  the  State;  value  and  use  of 


134       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

legumes;  the  legumes  produced  on  the  home  farm; 
disposition  made  of  the  legume  crop. 

3.  Essentials  in  successful  production  of  red  clover.     Use 
of  red  clover  as  a  feed,  and  in  permanent  soil  fertility. 

4.  Essentials  in  successful  production  of  alfalfa.     Har- 
vesting and  use  of  alfalfa. 

5.  Use  of  lime-stone  in  soil  improvement,  values,  methods 
of  application,  soil  testing  for  acidity,  etc. 

6.  Use  of  rock  phosphate  in  a  system  of  permanent  soil 
fertility.   Times  and  methods  of  application. 

7.  Some  good  varieties  and  successful  methods  hi  oats 
seeding.  How  treat  oats  for  smut?  Demonstrate. 

8.  What  are  the  points  to  observe  in  good  ploughing,  i.e., 
breaking  the  ground  in  preparation  for  seeding? 

9.  Essentials  of  a  good  seed-bed.  Some  implements  to  use 
in  making  a  good  seed-bed. 

10.  How  are  we  to  judge  good  seed  corn?    Essential  quali- 
ties of  good  seed  corn. 

11.  Describe  methods  of  testing  seed  corn  used  on  the  farm 
where  student  works.  Test  seed  corn. 

12.  Describe  method  of  planting  corn  followed  on  the  home 
farm.   Give  all  details. 

13.  Why  do  we  cultivate  corn?    What  cultivator  did  you 
use  this  season?  Are  you  using  deep  or  shallow  cultiva- 
tion. Why?  How  many  tunes  to  cultivate? 

14.  What  weeds  do  you  find  in  the  corn,  or  troublesome  any- 
where on  the  place?     Discuss  best  methods  of  con- 
trolling them. 

15.  What  harvesting  practice  is  necessary  in  making  good 
timothy  hay?  Clover  hay?  Alfalfa  hay?  What  yields 
are  you  getting  this  season? 

16.  Describe  good  methods  of  shocking  and  setting  up 
wheat  and  oats.    Are  the  prospects  good  for  a  large 
yield?  Give  reasons. 

17.  What  insect  pests  were  on  the  corn  or  wheat  this  season  ? 
To  what  extent  the  injury?  Outline  methods  of  control. 


SOME  METHODS  AND   PRINCIPLES       135 


18.  Essentials  in  growing  soy  beans. 

19.  The  yields  of  oats  and  wheat.   What  yields  should  we 
reasonably  expect? 

20.  Explain  the  methods  of  using  eveners  in  three-horse 
hitch  and  the  tandem  four-horse  hitch  in  fall  ploughing. 
Which  is  the  better  hitch?  Why? 

21.  Importance  of  selecting  seed  corn  in  the  field.  Describe 
methods  used. 

22.  When  do  you  cut  corn  for  the  silo?  Describe  methods 
of  filling  silos.   Value  of  silage. 

23.  Estimated  yield  of  corn  on  home  farm.   Probable  rea- 
sons for  high  or  low  yield.     Methods  of  marketing. 
Essentials  in  proper  storage  of  seed  corn. 

24.  Make  out  a  summary  and  financial  statement  of  the 
leading  crop  on  the  farm. 

Summary  of  Labor 


Operations 

Hours  of  labor  at  current  price 

Man 

Boy 

Horse 

Cost 

Ploughing  

Harrowing  and  rolling  

Seed  preparation  

Seed  treatment  

Cultivating  

Harvesting     ................ 

Storing  or  marketing  

Total  

136       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Summary  of  Financial  Statement 


Item 

Quantity 

Price 

Total 

Charges 

Credits 

Seed   

Chemicals  —  treating  seed  

Fertilizers  

Rent  

Use  of  building  

Products  marketed  or  stored  . 
Net  profit  or  loss  

Total  

Suggestive  Points  for  the  Supervised  Farm  Practice  in  Systems 
of  Live-Stock  Farming 

1.  Values  of  live-stock  on  the  farm.   Kinds,  number,  and 
estimated  value  of  live-stock  on  the  farm  where  the 
boy  works. 

2.  What  are  pure-breds,  grades,  and  scrubs?    Number 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       137 

and  kinds  of  each  on  this  farm.    Advantages  of  pure- 
breds.  How  are  live-stock  improved  in  breeding? 

3.  What  is  pedigree?    Registration?    Advanced  registry? 
Copy  the  official  registration  to  four  generations  of 
one  pure-bred  animal  on  the  farm. 

4.  Characterize  the  breed  of  swine  raised  on  the  farm. 
Select  and  describe  the  points,  as  you  would  judge 
them  in  the  best  brood  sow  on  the  farm. 

5.  Describe  the  feeding  systems  used  for  the  swine  on  the 
farm.   Figure  out  the  nutritive  ratios.   Are  there  bal- 
anced rations  and  good  standards? 

6.  What  provision  is  made  for  housing -the  hogs?    Are 
conditions  sanitary?    Make  suggestions  for  improve- 
ment if  needed. 

7.  Describe  the  breed  of  beef  cattle  fed  on  this  farm.  With 
the  help  of  the  supervisor  place  a  ring  of  steers  and 
describe  in  your  notebook  why  you  placed  No.  (?)  first. 

8.  Describe  the  feeding  methods  used  on  the  farm.    Are 
they  good?  Why? 

9.  Describe  the  breed  of  sheep  raised.    Place  a  ring  of 
sheep  and  state  why  you  select  ike  first,  second,  etc. 

10.  Characterize  a  good  fleece.    Examine  and  determine 
some  good  specimen. 

11.  Describe  the  methods  of  feeding  and  housing  sheep 
used  on  this  farm.  Criticisms. 

12.  Characterize  the  dairy  breed  on  the  farm.  Describe  a 
cow  in  the  herd  you  would  place  first  in  judging,  with 
reasons  for  your  judgment. 

13.  What  feeding  rations  are  used?  Are  they  good?  Why? 

14.  Estimate  from  the  daily  milk  record  the  yearly  record 
of  each  cow.    How  would  this  total  weight  compare 
with  the  cow's  weight?   How  does  this  yield  compare 
with  some  world  record  cows? 

15.  What  is  the  butter-fat  test  for  each  cow  in  the  herd? 
How  do  these  tests  compare  with  proper  standards  on 
the  butter-fat  content? 


138       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 


16.  What  are  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  breed  of 
horses  used  on  the  farm? 

17.  Practice  judging  a  ring  of  horses.  Place  the  best  horse 
and  write  out  your  reasons. 

18.  What  feeding  methods  and  standards  are  used  for  the 
work  horses  on  the  farm?  Determine  whether  they  are 
good. 

19.  List  eight  or  ten  points  in  good  horsemanship.  Demon- 
strate to  the  supervisor  that  you  can  hitch,  drive,  and 
handle  a  team  well. 

20.  Describe  the  breed  characteristics  of  the  poultry  raised 
on  the  farm. 

21.  What  rations  are  used  in  feeding  the  poultry  on  this 
farm?  Are  they  good?  Why? 

22.  Criticize  the  housing  of  the  poultry  on  the  farm.  How 
should  it  be  improved  if  necessary? 

23.  Quote  the  market  prices  for  all  grades  and  classes  of 
live-stock  for  the  current  week. 

24.  Make  out  a  summary  and  financial  statement  for  one 
group  of  live-stock  for  the  period  of  supervised  work. 

Kind  and  Number  of  Animals 


Pounds 

Pounds 

Cost  of  f  eec 

grain  fed 

roughage  fed 

Grain 

Roughage 

Total 

Month  

Month  

Month  

Month  

Month  

Month  

Total... 

SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       139 


Date 

Products 
sold 

Quantity 

Price 

Total 

Month  

Month  

Month  

Month  

Month  

Month  

Total... 

Summary 


Charges 

Credits 

Labor  —  boy  

Labor  —  horse  

Feed  '.  

JT«*  nf  hiiilHi'ngS  ............  i  .  ,  ,  1  1    . 

Miscellaneous  ••••••....... 

Manure  

Products  marketed  

Inventory  

Net  profit  

Totals  

140       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

For  the  general  farming  system  the  supervisor  may  choose 
from  the  lists  on  grain  farming  and  live-stock  farming  any 
twenty-four  points  applicable  to  the  student's  case.  In  fact, 
these  points  are  only  meant  for  suggestions  and  methods, 
and  the  supervisor  should  feel  at  liberty  to  adapt  the  points 
and  reports  to  the  student's  work  and  community  interests. 
For  the  other  systems  of  farming  in  which  students  of  voca- 
tional agriculture  may  offer  their  supervised  practice  work, 
the  agriculture  teacher  should  carefully  prepare  the  twenty- 
four  points,  admitting  of  practice  and  demonstration  upon 
the  supervisor's  visits  and  having  definite  notebook  answers 
to  be  made  by  the  student. 

Suggestive  Points  for  the  Supervised  Farm  Practice  in  Farm 
Mechanics 

1.  Rope  work. 

(a)  Up  crown,  down  crown,  whipping  ends. 
(6)  Knots;  square,  weavers,  bow-line,  grain  sack, 
pipe  hitch. 

(c)  Repair  broken  strands,  long  splice,  short  splice, 
loop. 

(d)  Halters;  horse,  cattle,  emergency. 

2.  Babbeting  and  dressing  a  box. 

3.  Get  a  soldering  outfit.  Do  elementary  soldering,  repair 
work,  etc. 

4.  Belt  lacing,  cement  splice,  single  cross  lace,  double 
cross  lace. 

5.  Pipe  cutting  and  fitting. 

6.  Some  forge  and  iron  work,  bending,  clevis  making;  use 
old  machines,  take  apart  and  put  together,  study  parts 
and  construction,  repair  broken  parts,  binder  heads 
and  old  disc  harrows  especially. 

7  Wood-working. 

(a)  Construction  of  equalizers,  especially  the  wood 
parts,  possibly  buy  iron  and  complete  the  con- 
struction. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       141 

(b)  Make  a  good  farm  gate,  use  old  lumber  if  neces- 
sary; make  it  right. 

(c)  Make  pig  self-feeders,  chicken  coops,  etc. 

(d)  Make  a  hayrack. 

8.  Concrete  work.  Practice  to  get  materials  properly 
proportioned.  Make  slabs  and  posts,  compare  the 
breaking  strength  fpr  tests  as  to  success  of  your  work. 
:  NOTE  :  For  the  notebook  work,  describe  each  practice 
or  construction,  and  state  the  fundamental  principles 
learned.  The  supervisor  of  agriculture  may  find  on 
any  farm  where  his  students  are  working  opportunities 
to  give  some  excellent  practice  from  among  the  points 
suggested  above. 

Use  of  reference  materials.  Books  and  other  pub- 
lications intended  for  the  use  of  farmers  and  students 
of  agriculture  are  not  only  increasing  in  number,  but 
improving  in  quality  as  well.  The  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.C.,  the  various  State 
agricultural  colleges,  and  many  commercial  institu- 
tions publish  valuable  material  which  may  be  used 
as  reference  by  secondary  schools  teaching  agriculture. 
The  leading  agricultural  journals  should  be  available 
for  the  use  of  the  students.  The  teacher  of  agriculture 
should  keep  in  touch  with  the  sources  of  all  these 
reference  materials,  and  arouse  interest  in  his  students 
to  collect  and  use  them.  Students  may  be  required 
to  obtain  such  available  bulletins  as  bear  upon  their 
courses  and  projects. 

For  most  reference  reading  students  must  depend 
upon  the  school  library.  With  so  much  material  avail- 


142       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

able  there  is  little  excuse  for  a  high  school  being  with- 
out some  kind  of  an  agricultural  library.  Much  of  the 
best  reference  material  is  in  the  free  publications,  but 
in  such  a  form  that  it  is  often  overlooked.  The  teacher 
should  use  a  card-index  system,  so  that  students  may 
readily  find  the  available  information  on  any  topic 
which  may  be  assigned.  Bulletins  should  be  in  suit- 
able boxes  arranged  according  to  the  card-index 
system  in  use.  Covers  may  be  provided  for  bulletins 
which  are  used  extensively.  If  files  are  not  kept  of 
the  farm  papers,  clippings  may  be  made  of  such  articles 
as  have  a  bearing  upon  the  subjects  studied.  These 
clippings  may  be  placed  in  large  envelopes  or  letter 
files  and  indexed  under  title  of  subject  with  the  bulle- 
tins. If  the  students  are  made  acquainted  with  sources 
of  information  and  established  in  efficient  habits  in  the 
use  of  that  information,  much  will  be  accomplished 
in  their  training. 

SYSTEM  OF  FILING 

[    (Courtesy  of  G.  A.  Deveneau,  Agricultural  Librarian,  University  of  Illinois) 

Classification  of  Agriculture 

For  use  in  arranging  an  agricultural  collection  of  books,  bulletins, 
and  clippings 

0  Agricultural  economics,  education  and  sociology. 
0 . 1  Farm  organization  and  management. 
0.2  Cooperative  or  "mutual"  enterprises. 
0 . 3  Agricultural  credit  and  insurance. 
0 . 4  Agricultural  education. 
0 . 5  Agricultural  experiment  station. 
0 . 6  Agricultural  extension. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       143 

0 . 7  Social  activities  and  organizations  (e.g.,  granges) . 
0.8  Country  church  and  Y.M.C.A.  and  Y.W.C.A. 
0 . 9  History  of  agriculture. 

1  Soils. 

1 . 1  Soil  surveys. 

1.2  Soil  physics  (soil  depreciation  and  its  preven- 

tion). 

1.3  Soil  chemistry  (constituents  and  fertility  treat- 

ment). 

1.4  Soil  cultivation  and  tillage  (1.45  or  9.5?  Dry 

farming). 

1 . 5  Crop  rotation. 

1 . 6  Soil  moisture. 

1.7  Fertilizers. 

1 . 8  Soil  bacteriology. 

1 . 9  Climate  and  weather. 

2  Agricultural  engineering. 

2.1  Drainage. 

2.2  Irrigation. 

2 . 3  Farm  buildings. 
2.4 

2.5  Roads  and  bridges. 

2 . 6  Fences  and  minor  structures. 

2 . 7  Farm  implements  and  machinery. 

2.8  Water  supply. 

2.9  Sanitation. 

3  Economic  entomology,  plant  diseases,  and  pests. 

3.1  Apiculture. 

8 . 2  Other  beneficial  insects. 

3 . 3  Harmful  insects  affecting  animals. 

3 . 4  Harmful  insects  affecting  plants. 

8 . 5  Insect  repression. 

3 . 6  Diseases  of  agricultural  plants. 
3.7 

8 . 8  Weeds  and  poisonous  plants. 

3 . 9  Injurious  animals. 


144       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

4  Field  and  forage  crops. 
1      Cereals. 

4.11  Wheat. 

4.12  Barley. 

4.13  Oats. 

4.14  Rye. 

4.15  Emm  or  and  spoltz. 

4.16  Corn. 

4 . 17  Grain  sorghums  —  Kafir,  milo,  and  durra. 

4.18  Rice. 

4 . 19  Buckwheat  and  others. 

4.2  Corn  (?) 

4.3  Wheat  (?) 

4 . 4  Grasses  —  Hay  and  pasture. 

4.41  Meadows  and  pastures. 

4.42  Bermuda. 

4.43  Bluegrass. 

4.44  Millets. 

4 . 45  Prairie  and  native  grasses. 

4.46  Sudan  grass. 

4.47  Timothy. 
4.48 

4.49  Others. 

4.5  Legumes. 

4.51  Alfalfa  (Lucerne). 

4.52  Clovers. 

4.53  Cow  peas. 

4.54  Field  peas. 

4.55  Peanut. 

4 . 56  Soy  beans. 

4.57  Sweet  clover. 

4.58  Vetches. 

4.59  Others. 

4.6  Alkaloidal,  medicinal,  and  oil-producing  plants. 

4 . 7  Textile  and  fiber  plants. 

4.71  Cotton. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       145 

4.72 

4.73  Flax. 
;    4.74  Hemp. 

4.75  Jute. 

4 . 76  Broom  corn. 

4.8  Sugar-yielding  plants. 

4.81  Beet. 

4.82 

4.83  Cane. 

4.84 

4.85  Sorghum. 

4 . 9  Root  crops  and  miscellaneous  forage  crops. 

5  Horticulture  (plant  culture). 

6 . 1  Plant  culture  (including  seeds,  planting,  pruning, 

breeding,  etc.). 
5.2 
5.3 
5.4 

5.5  Vegetables. 

5.6  Fruits. 

5.7  Floriculture. 

5 . 8  Landscape  gardening. 

6.9  Forestry. 

6  Animal  husbandry  (animal  culture). 

6.1  Cattle. 

6 . 2  Horses  and  mules. 

6.3  Sheep  and  goats. 

6.4  Swine. 

6.5  Poultry. 

6.6  Birds. 

6.7  Dogs  and  cats. 

6.8  Fish,  etc. 

6 . 9  Veterinary  science. 

7  Dairy  farming  and  manufacture. 

7.1  General. 

7.2  Dairy  cattle,  breeding  and  feeding. 


146       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

7.3  Milk. 

7.4  Condensed  and  skim  milk. 

7.5  Cream. 

7.6  Butter. 
7.7 

7.8  Cheese. 

7.9  Ice  cream. 

8  Feeding  of  animals. 

8 . 1  Composition  of  foods  for  animals. 

8.2  Nutritive  value. 

8.3  Preparation  and  use. 

8.4  Preservation  —  silage. 

8.5  Adulteration. 

8 . 6  Food  analyses. 

8 . 7  Food  experiments. 

8.8  Soiling. 

9  Home  economics. 

9.1  Foods  —  cooking. 

9.2  —  serving  —  entertaining. 

9.3  —  preserving  —  canning. 

9.4  Home  and  its  furnishing. 
9.5 

9.6  Household  administration  and  management. 

9.7  Clothing. 

9.8  Laundry. 

9.9  Nursery  and  sick-room. 

Liberal  use  made  of  Wyer  Expansion  of  D.C.  1914,  and 
other  classification  schemes. 

Agricultural  extension  in  the  high  school.  Contempo- 
rary educational  philosophy  demands  a  free  field  for  educa- 
tional experimentation,  an  evaluation  of  educational  attain- 
ments in  terms  of  personal  and  social  efficiency,  refinement 
and  happiness,  and  an  expansion  and  extension  of  school 
activities.1 

1  Dewey,  Schools  of  To-morrow. 


When  any  school  or  department  of  that  school  gets 
away  from  the  monastic  ideals  of  education,  and  is 
willing  to  bring  whatever  of  good  it  possesses  to  all  the 
people  within  reach,  then  the  school  not  only  takes 
on  new  life  within  itself,  but  enlists  the  moral  and 
financial  support  to  a  larger  degree  of  all  the  people  it 
endeavors  to  serve.  This  has  been  shown  in  the  history 
of  the  colleges  of  agriculture  of  the  country.  For  a 
score  or  more  of  years  the  Land-Grant  Colleges  of 
Agriculture  pursued  the  even  tenor  of  their  way, 
scarcely  known  outside  the  campus  farm,  drawing 
few  students  to  the  college,  and  receiving  little  or 
no  State  aid.  When,  however,  these  colleges  began 
to  establish  extension  departments,  and  to  have  the 
extension  spirit,  they  began  to  enroll  students  by  the 
hundreds,  and  to  receive  State  aid  by  the  thousands 
and  millions. 

The  high  schools,  especially  since  they  are  of  aristo- 
cratic origin  and  have  been  born  and  bred  in  classic 
atmosphere,  must  also  see  to  it  that  they  break  down 
the  closed-wall  ideals  and  serve  the  common  people 
with  a  democratic  and  universal  education.  This  the 
American  high  schools  are  beginning  to  do  through  the 
introduction  of  vocational  courses  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  community  service  and  extension  ideals, 
and  as  a  result  of  this  movement  we  witness  the  most 
remarkable  growth  of  any  educational  institution  in  all 
history,  in  that  of  the  modern  high  school. 

With  the  introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  high 


148       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

school,  a  new  and  practical  means  of  effective  exten- 
sion service  is  possible,  and  the  high  school  having 
a  department  of  agriculture  fails  to  see  its  golden  op- 
portunity when  it  neglects  extension  activities  along 
agricultural  lines.  Once  the  spirit  and  value  of  exten- 
sion service  is  felt  and  realized  by  the  high  school,  then 
the  whole  school  through  its  various  activities  be- 
comes a  community-serving  institution  in  the  broad- 
est sense. 

a.  The  objects  of  high-school  extension  are:  l  — 

1.  To  vitalize  the  regular  work  of  the  school  by 
articulating  it  more  closely  with  the  home, 
farm,  shop,  and  other  forms  of  human  en- 
deavor. 

2.  To  carry  the  benefits  of  the  school  to  many 
groups  who  are  deprived  of  its  direct  influences. 

8.  To  cooperate  with  all  educational  agencies  of 
the  community  which  do  not  at  present  come 
under  school  administration,  utilizing  these  as 
far  as  practical  in  the  educational  work  of  the 
school  and  community. 

4.  To  institute  promising  educational  efforts 
that  may  result  in  increased  human  pros- 
perity and  welfare. 

There  are  well-established  educational  and  govern- 
ment principles  underlying  the  movement  for  exten- 
sion work:  — 

1  Modified  and  adapted  from  Hummel,  High-School  Extension 
Circular,  University  of  California. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       149 

1.  Government  control  and  direction  aims  in  all 
good  democracies  to  increase  individual  and 
social  content  and  happiness. 
1  2.  Whatever  organized  society  desires  to  do  for 
the  common  good  are  legitimate  matters  for 
governmental  agencies  to  foster. 

3.  A  continuation  of  education  of  the  right  sort 
is  desirable  for  every  citizen  of  a  democracy. 

4.  Modern  civilization  demands  of  every  citizen 
a  more  extensive  and  differentiated  training 
than  the  conditions  of  a  simpler  age  required, 
and  the  adaptation  of  educational  forms  and 
progress  to  the  changing  needs  of  society  is 
in  harmony  with  the  principle  of  evolution 
and  gives  warrant  for  the  continued  enlarge- 
ment of  public  school  activities  and  increased 
financial  support  thereof. 

Many  agencies  beside  the  school  are  contributing 
to  the  work  of  education,  —  the  home,  church,  theater, 
library,  playground,  club,  workshop,  farm,  business 
house,  press,  museum,  art  gallery,  concert  hall,  lecture 
platform,  legislative  hall,  convention  hall,  and  the 
great  out-of-doors. 

Without  going  into  detail  to  outline  forms  of  ex- 
tension activities  through  which  a  high  school  may 
serve  the  entire  community  along  many  lines  of  human 
interest,  a  few  suggestions,  referring  to  the  four  ob- 
jects of  extension  work  given  above,  may  be  grouped 
about  these  larger  aims  as  forms  of  extension  work. 


150       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

b.  Forms  of  extension  activities  for:  — 
Object  I. 

1.  Amateur  dramatics. 

2.  Pageantry. 

3.  Literary  societies. 

4.  School  paper. 

5.  School  farm. 

6.  Musical  programs  and  societies. 

7.  School  credit  for  home  work,  correlation 
of  home  life  and  school  work. 

Object  II. 

1.  Night  schools. 

2.  Courses  for  retarded  pupils. 

3.  Part  time  day  schools. 

4.  Continuation  schools,   short   courses, 
etc. 

5.  Adult  day  schools. 

6.  Vacation  schools. 

7.  Schools  for  defectives. 
Object  III. 

1.  Bible  study,  Sunday-Schools. 

2.  Schools  as  social  centers. 

3.  Public  recreation. 

4.  Specific  vocational  instruction. 

5.  Club  work,  home  projects,  etc. 

6.  Teachers'  training  courses. 

7.  Red  Cross  work. 

8.  Library  training  courses. 

9.  Home-making  courses  for  girls. 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES      151 

Object  IV. 

1.  Exchange  teacher  plan. 

2.  General  language  courses. 

3.  Elementary  courses  in  civics,  philosophy, 
astronomy,  etc. 

4.  Patrons'  institutes,  people's  week,  etc. 

5.  The  high  school  a  community  laboratory, 
—  a  bureau  of  local  research,  local  prob- 
lems studied,  surveys  made,  tests  made, 
etc. 

6.  Junior  college  work. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  who  plans  to  begin  a 
policy  of  extension  service  from  his  department,  may 
wisely  practice  a  little  "  watchful  waiting."  This  may 
also  be  good  extension  policy  for  the  high  school  as  a 
whole.  It  may  not  be  tactful  to  announce  at  first  any 
extension  plans,  but  they  should  early  be  formulated 
and  set  in  motion,  whenever  and  wherever  the  occa- 
sion and  opportunity  are  ripe.  The  extent  and  amount 
of  agricultural  extension  work  done  by  the  high  school 
will  depend  very  much  upon  the  type  of  school  in 
which  agriculture  is  given.  When  the  school  does  not 
require  the  teacher  of  agriculture  to  teach  other  sub- 
jects, and  gives  him  at  least  half  of  his  time  for  ex- 
tension work,  it  is  evident  that  such  work  will  develop 
to  larger  proportions. 

c.  There  are  four  rather  effective  methods  of  approach 
to  agricultural  extension  work :  — 

First,  the  community  survey  should  be  made.1 
1  See  Appendix. 


152       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Through  the  survey,  the  natural  resources  of  the  com- 
munity may  be  determined,  and  the  nature  of  the  or- 
ganizations and  institutions  affecting  agricultural  and 
country  life  interests. 

Second,  home-project  work,  as  described  earlier  in 
this  discussion,  is  an  excellent  method  of  approach  to 
extension  service.  By  this  method  practical  instruction 
in  agriculture  is  brought  to  the  homes  of  the  boys  and 
girls,  and  not  only  the  students  who  attend  school  and 
do  the  project  work  are  benefited,  but  the  parents  and 
other  out-of -school  folks,  seeing  the  results  of  success- 
ful home-project  work,  may  gain  valuable  agricultural 
information. 

Third,  individual  work  among  farmers  is  real  ex- 
tension work,  practical  and  possible,  when  the  teacher 
of  agriculture  has  time  and  when  he  is  capable  of 
doing  it.  Such  work  as  testing  seeds  and  milk,  examin- 
ing soils,  advising  on  points  of  farm  management, 
pruning  and  spraying  fruit  trees,  vaccinating  swine 
for  cholera,  testing  cows  for  tuberculosis,  caponizing 
young  cockerels,  treating  oats  for  smut,  referring  to 
authorities  the  different  problems  arising,  etc.,  are 
common  methods  of  individual  extension  work  the 
high-school  department  may  do,  but  the  teacher  must 
be  "mighty  sure"  that  he  knows  his  ground,  from  an 
abundant  and  successful  experience,  as  well  as  from 
technical  scientific  knowledge  along  the  line  of  work 
he  attempts. 

Fourth,  organization  of  farmers'  clubs  forms  an 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       153 

opportunity  for  good  extension  activities  by  the  high- 
school  agricultural  department.  In  addition  to  the 
organization  of  agricultural  clubs  among  the  interested 
students  in  the  high  school,  the  school  may  be  active 
in  the  organization  and  leadership  of  agricultural  socie- 
ties, farmers'  clubs,  and  country-life  clubs,  and  other 
similar  organizations  among  the  adults  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Where  there  is  a  county  agricultural  adviser,  the 
school  may  follow  up  and  conserve  the  work  of  the 
adviser  in  all  his  efforts  at  organization  in  the  com- 
munity. 

One  interesting  form  of  cooperation  which  is  a 
splendid  piece  of  extension  work,  is  an  agricultural 
advisory  committee  chosen  from  among  the  successful 
farmers  of  the  community.  These  men  advise  in  all 
matters  relating  to  the  agricultural  work  in  the  local 
high  school.  They  may  give  practical  talks  to  the 
classes  in  agriculture,  and  what  is  better  still,  they 
may  take  the  class  on  automobile  trips  to  see  actual 
farm  operations  and  conditions  having  educational 
value  for  the  students  of  agriculture  in  school. 

The  development  of  agricultural  and  home  economic 
short  courses,  to  which  all  the  people  of  the  community 
may  come,  will  contribute  more  and  more,  like  the 
folk  high  schools  of  Denmark,  to  the  vocational  as  well 
as  to  the  liberal  education  of  the  old  and  young  of  the 
open  country.  The  community  high  school  will  ulti- 
mately not  only  be  doing  all  the  extension  work  now 


154       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

done  by  the  colleges  of  agriculture,  but  vastly  more  and 
with  much  greater  efficiency  because  it  is  nearer  to  the 
farmer's  home. 

In  reply  to  a  questionnaire  sent  out  by  the  Assistant 
in  Agricultural  Education  in  the  United  States  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations  in  1914  to  the  high  schools  of 
the  country,  over  one  half  of  the  four  hundred  schools 
replying  reported  that  they  were  engaged  in  some  kind 
of  boys'  and  girls'  club  work  as  an  extension  activity. 
In  most  cases  the  agricultural  instructors  were  acting 
as  local  leaders.  The  principle  types  of  extension  work 
done  in  the  high  schools  were  organizing  farmers' 
clubs,  cow-testing  and  live-stock  work,  seed  selection, 
speaking  at  meetings,  and  giving  advice  to  individual 
farmers.  The  various  kinds  of  extension  work  carried 
on  by  the  agricultural  instructors  as  listed  in  the 
report  of  the  above-mentioned  questionnaire  are  as 
follows:  — 

Spraying  Organizing  clubs 

Pruning  Speaking  at  meetings 

Grange  work  Cow-testing 

Testing  milk  Alfalfa  plots 

Weed  identification  Corn  clubs 

Testing  seed  corn  Wheat-breeding 

Consultations  Experiments 

Dairy  improvement  Farm  visits 

Purchase  of  live-stock  Fertilizing 

Hog-cholera  work  Answering  questions 

School  contests  Care  of  cattle 

Introducing  pure-bred  seed  Seed-testing 

Poultry  clubs  Pig  clubs 

Garden  clubs  Ploughing  demonstrations 

Planning  and  building  silos  Cooperative  associations 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       155 

Agricultural  extension  work,  properly  carried  on, 
should  reach  the  purse,  the  mind,  and  the  spirit.  It 
should  bring  increased  knowledge,  added  profits,  and 
greater  contentment  and  happiness  to  farm  people. 
Local  extension  work  enables  the  instructor  to  become 
familiar  with  country-life  conditions,  and  to  be  bet- 
ter able  to  teach  the  pupils  coming  from  the  country 
homes.  Agricultural  extension  work  hi  the  high  school 
offers  opportunity  to  relate  the  State  agricultural  col- 
lege, the  school,  and  the  farming  population  of  the 
community  in  ways  mutually  helpful  to  all. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  in  the  high  school,  if 
properly  prepared  for  his  work,  is  in  an  ideal  position 
to  do  effective  agricultural  extension  work.  Extension 
work  from  the  college  of  agriculture  must  necessarily 
be  at  long  range  and  only  a  few  people  are  directly 
reached.  The  county  adviser  can  come  in  touch  with 
his  farm  constituency  only  at  more  or  less  infrequent 
intervals.  The  high-school  teacher  of  agriculture  is 
in  the  community,  "  on  the  job  "  every  day.  He  is 
able  to  prove  himself  the  farmer's  friend  and  confident. 
It  is  his  duty  to  make  himself  a  vital  factor  in  pro- 
moting better  agriculture  and  happier  country  living 
throughout  the  community  employing  him.  If  he  has 
the  confidence  of  the  farmers,  they  will  bring  their 
problems  to  him  and  heed  his  advice.  If  he  cannot 
answer  their  questions,  he  will  take  them  to  some  agri- 
cultural expert  who  is  especially  fitted  to  do  so. 

Professor  Hummel,  of  the  California  State  College 


156       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

of  Agriculture,  made  a  study  of  certain  phases  of 
high-school  agricultural  extension  work  and  found:  — 

First,  that  it  was  advisable  that  one  half  of  each 
school  day,  preferably  the  morning,  should  be  given 
by  the  agricultural  instructor  to  classwork,  and  that 
the  other  half  be  left  free  for  preparation,  for  labo- 
ratory work,  and  community  extension  work. 

Second,  that  the  agricultural  teacher  should  be 
hired  for  twelve  months,  a  vacation  of  one  month 
being  allowed  at  the  most  convenient  time. 

Third,  a  part  of  the  financial  support  for  the  local 
extension  work  should  come  from  the  State,  and  a 
part  from  the  local  high-school  district.  A  tactful 
teacher  can  find  ways,  however,  of  starting  effective 
local  extension  work,  even  though  no  funds  are  pro- 
vided or  moral  support  given. 

Fourth,  the  kinds  of  extension  work  may  be  clas- 
sified under  five  heads:  (a)  work  with  farmers,  as 
organizing  or  working  in  farmers'  clubs,  an  annual 
farmers'  short-course  week,  field  and  orchard  demon- 
stration, cooperative  experiments  on  farms,  good  seed 
distribution,  seed-  and  milk-testing,  preparing  plans  for 
buildings,  selecting  and  purchasing  improved  live- 
stock, etc.;  (6)  work  with  farm  women,  as  afternoon 
or  evening  meetings,  short  courses,  home  garden,  and 
poultry  experiments;  (c)  work  with  young  people,  as 
short  courses  in  agriculture  and  home  economics,  agri- 
cultural contests  and  societies;  (d)  work  with  rural- 
school  teachers,  as  meetings  for  agricultural  instruc- 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       157 

tion,  assisting  in  conducting  school  fairs;  and  (e)  work 
with  rural-school  children,  as  boys'  and  girls'  agricul- 
tural or  domestic  science  clubs,  school  fairs  or  exhibits 
of  work,  rural  improvements,  and  athletic  field  days. 

From  all  these  studies  we  may  conclude  that  among 
the  kinds  of  agricultural  extension  work  found  effec- 
tive in  secondary  schools  are :  — 

Short  courses  for  men  and  women  over  school  age; 
farmers'  week  hi  cooperation  with  the  State  college  of 
agriculture  sending  representatives  for  extension  lec- 
tures; visiting  and  advising  with  individual  farmers; 
organization  of  farmers'  clubs  for  definite  purposes, 
and  work  in  these  organizations;  rural  schoolhouse 
meetings  with  farmers,  with  talks  and  round-table  dis- 
cussions on  agricultural  and  rural-life  problems;  assist- 
ing farmers  in  keeping  cost  and  yield  records;  help- 
ing in  balancing  feeding  rations  for  farm  animals; 
suggesting  improvements  in  crop  rotations,  testing 
milk,  seed,  etc.;  distributing  good  seed;  pruning, 
spraying,  the  use  of  hog-cholera  serum,  caponizing 
poultry,  treating  oats  for  smut;  cooperative  demon- 
stration plots  on  farms  of  the  community;  home-pro- 
ject work  among  farm  boys;  promoting  the  teach- 
ing of  agriculture  in  rural  schools,  and  assisting  in 
this  work;  organization  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs; 
getting  up  local  fairs,  contests,  farm  product  days, 
etc. ;  issuing  of  school  bulletins  on  timely  topics,  agri- 
cultural items  in  local  papers,  and  agricultural  sup- 
plements occasionally;  establishing  farmers'  circulating 


158       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

libraries;  listing  farmers  for  "  sale  "  and  "  want  " 
items  at  the  school  or  in  published  lists  to  be  dis- 
tributed; and  utilizing  all  the  educational  and  agricul- 
tural resources  of  the  community  for  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture  and  rural-life  conditions. 

Difficulties  in  connection  with  this  work  should  not 
dismay  the  right  kind  of  an  agricultural  teacher.  If  he 
is  properly  trained  for  his  work  and  brings  a  man's 
estate  to  the  task,  he  need  not  fear  failure.  The  agri- 
cultural teacher  who  is  qualified  to  give  courses  in  a 
high  school,  who  is  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  ele- 
mentary principles  of  science,  who  has  a  detailed 
technical  knowledge  of  agriculture  and  a  certain 
amount  of  training  in  farm  practice,  should  be  able  to 
do  a  certain  kind  and  amount  of  good  community  ex- 
tension work.  Training  in  public  speaking  and  Eng- 
lish will  be  of  great  value.  Knowledge  of  rural  sociology 
and  agricultural  economics  will  be  important.  Keen 
sympathy  with,  and  an  understanding  of,  community 
needs  and  welfare  are  essential. 

Use  of  land  in  teaching  agriculture  in  secondary 
schools.  The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1914  sent 
out  a  questionnaire  to  all  high  schools  receiving  State 
aid,  to  special  agricultural  schools,  and  to  normal 
schools  known  to  have  courses  in  agriculture.  To  this 
400  replies  were  received.  Out  of  the  replies  received 
257  reported  that  some  land  was  used  in  connec- 
tion with  agricultural  instruction.  These  schools  were 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       159 

distributed  rather  representatively  in  the  Eastern, 
Southern,  and  Middle  Western  States.  Of  the  257 
schools  with  land,  only  82  reported  farm  animals. 
Over  one  half  of  the  school  farms  had  6  acres  or  less. 
There  were  58  farms  with  over  20  acres.  The  report 
shows  that  of  the  257  school  farms,  150  were  growing 
corn;  129,  garden  crops;  84,  potatoes;  75,  oats;  61, 
alfalfa;  42,  cotton;  35,  wheat;  29,  clover;  and  20,  sweet 
potatoes. 

Some  of  the  larger  uses  to  which  the  land  was  put 
were  827  acres  for  crop  rotation,  593  acres  for  general 
demonstrations,  382  acres  for  raising  pure-bred  seed 
for  distribution  among  the  farmers,  206  acres  for  dormi- 
tory supplies,  166  acres  for  fertilizer  demonstrations, 
and  166  acres  for  general  experiments. 

A  question  was  asked  as  to  whether  the  school  farm 
was  essential  in  secondary-school  agricultural  instruc- 
tion. The  replies  indicated  that  a  majority  were  op- 
posed to  the  school  farm.  In  stating  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  school  farm,  replies  indicated 
that  the  advantages  were  all  educational,  and  the  dis- 
advantages arose  in  connection  with  the  management 
of  the  school  farm. 

Advantages  referred  to  were  that  the  school  farm 
made  instruction  real,  gave  the  student  some  practical 
work,  supplied  laboratory  material,  and  gave  oppor- 
tunity to  carry  on  demonstrations  for  the  benefit  of 
the  pupils  and  farmers.  The  principal  disadvantages 
were  that  help  was  hard  to  get,  the  land  poor,  and  the 


160       THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

instructor's  time  was  poorly  spent.  Many  difficult  prob- 
lems of  management  arise.  The  farms  are  small,  build- 
ings and  equipment  poor  or  absent,  help  of  men  and 
teams  must  be  hired,  the  investment  is  high  in  propor- 
tion to  the  acreage  cultivated  and  to  the  crops  ob- 
tained, and  the  agricultural  instructor  seldom  lives  on 
the  land  or  is  employed  for  the  entire  year.  The  farm- 
ers of  the  community  are  likely  to  criticize  the  school 
farm  if  the  agricultural  instructor  does  not  make  it 
produce  crops  with  a  profit.  It  is  questionable  whether 
the  school  farm  should  be  managed  for  profit;  it  is 
even  doubtful  whether  it  should  be  called  a  "  farm," 
if  land  at  the  school  must  be  managed  at  all.  School 
plots  which  seem  to  have  met  with  the  best  success 
are  those  which  grow  pure-bred  seed  corn,  small  grains, 
alfalfa,  potatoes,  etc.  This  plan  enables  the  school  to 
get  good  seed  to  be  distributed  in  the  neighborhood. 
Fruit  trees,  forest  and  ornamental  trees,  and  berry 
vines,  may  be  grown  on  the  school  plot  and  distributed 
in  a  similar  manner.  No  objection  can  be  raised  to  the 
use  of  school  land  when  it  becomes  the  distributing 
center  for  high  class  seeds,  plants,  and  trees.  The 
same  idea  may  be  extended  to  the  use  of  live-stock 
on  the  school  land.  By  the  use  of  pure-bred  sires  good 
live-stock  may  be  distributed  over  the  community. 

The  use  of  student  labor  on  school  plots  is  a  vexing 
problem.  Outside  of  a  few  hours  per  week  which  may 
be  required  as  laboratory  time,  no  adequate  amount  of 
labor,  such  as  successful  farming  requires,  can  be  de- 


SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES       161 

manded  of  students  regularly  attending  school.  The 
three  types  of  work  usually  done  on  the  school  land 
are,  preparation  of  the  land,  planting  of  the  crops,  and 
harvesting.  Pupils  usually  have  little  time  or  oppor- 
tunity for  the  work  of  cultivation. 

When  we  consider  the  small  size  of  the  school  plot 
and  the  number  of  students  taking  agriculture,  it  may 
readily  be  seen  that  the  student  can  get  but  little 
actual  experience  in  farm  operations,  and  that  the 
instructor  can  simply  show  what  has  happened  under 
certain  conditions.  The  school  farm  would,  therefore, 
seem  to  be  justifiable  only  as  a  center  of  distribution 
of  pure-bred  seed,  good  varieties  of  plants,  and  of  the 
services  of  pure-bred  animals;  as  a  demonstration  of 
certain  principles  in  agricultural  instruction;  and  as  an 
outdoor  laboratory  for  the  production  of  agricultural 
material  for  class  use.  In  order  to  succeed  with  these 
purposes,  the  school  must  provide  labor  and  super- 
vision the  year  round. 


VI 

THE  TEACHER  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  most  important  factor  in  education  is  the 
teacher.  If  agricultural  instruction  is  to  be  effective, 
if  the  faith  of  the  people  in  agricultural  education  is 
to  be  maintained,  we  must  have  efficient  agricultural 
teachers.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  essential  that  teachers 
of  agriculture  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  be 
prepared  to  teach  well  the  subject-matter  of  agricul- 
ture than  those  in  the  colleges.  Strong  students  may 
gain  information  in  colleges  in  spite  of  the  poor  meth- 
ods of  instruction  too  often  common  there. 

Teacher-training  courses  in  agricultural  education 
are  being  established  and  extended  rather  rapidly  in 
normal  schools  and  colleges  of  agriculture,  and  we  are 
now  able  to  find  good  teachers  both  technically  and 
professionally  trained  to  teach  in  elementary  and 
secondary  schools.  The  man  with  the  pure  science 
training,  who  was  "  brought  up  on  the  farm,"  may 
have  been  a  good  pioneer  in  agricultural  teaching,  but 
he  cannot  satisfy  the  demands  of  modern  scientific 
vocational  education.  He  lacks  a  proper  viewpoint  in 
his  work  and  does  not  understand  the  applications  of 
scientific  agriculture  to  farm  problems.  The  young 
graduate  who  knows  only  technical  agriculture  is 
likely  to  present  his  subject  in  an  unpedagogical  way 
often  "  above  the  heads  "  of  his  students.  If  we  are 


THE  TEACHER  OF  AGRICULTURE         1C3 

to  have  competent  agricultural  teachers,  they  must  be 
properly  prepared  for  this  work.  They  must  be  thor- 
ough scientists,  technically  trained  agriculturists,  lib- 
erally educated  men,  practical  farmers,  and  profession- 
ally trained  teachers.  To  be  specific,  the  prospective 
teacher  of  agriculture  should  first  have  a  thorough 
foundational  training  in  the  elementary  principles  of 
science.  To  this  he  should  add  a  detailed  technical 
study  of  as  many  phases  of  agriculture  as  possible, 
together  with  a  certain  amount  of  farm  practice.  His 
course  should  include  rural  sociology,  agricultural  eco- 
nomics, public  speaking,  and  other  work  to  liberalize 
his  general  training.  His  professional  training  should 
include  studies  of  the  history  of  education;  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  education;  of  educational  psychology;  of  school 
management;  of  the  principles  and  methods  of  teach- 
ing agriculture;  and  practice  teaching  in  elementary 
and  secondary  agriculture.  It  is  especially  important 
that  the  teacher  of  agriculture  be  liberally  educated 
and  a  man  of  affairs,  for  it  is  usually  expected  that  he 
not  only  give  instruction  to  his  pupils  in  school,  but 
that  his  influence  and  activities  extend  outside  of  the 
school  to  the  rural  life  of  the  community. 

The  three  inseparables  in  the  case  of  a  good  teacher 
are:  (1)  strong  personality,  (2)  high  standards  of  quali- 
fication, and  (3)  a  respectable  salary.  The  point  of 
attack  in  the  preparation  for  teaching  is,  perhaps,  at 
number  two.  It  is  more  easy  to  improve  one's  quali- 
fication technically  and  professionally,  where  that  is 
weak,  than  it  is  to  improve  the  personality.  The  per- 


164         THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE] 

sonality  of  the  teacher  is  a  very  difficult  thing  to  de- 
fine, yet  we  know  it  when  we  see  it.  The  agricultural 
teacher  must  have  desirable  personal  qualities.  He 
should  be  physically  sound;  his  character  should 
"  ring  true "  to  the  highest  moral  standards;  he 
should  have  a  strong,  sympathetic  nature,  free  from 
sarcasm;  he  should  have  a  keen  imagination,  and  a 
well-developed  sense  of  humor;  he  should  be  intelli- 
gently interested  in  affairs,  and  able  to  meet  people 
pleasantly  in  the  working  relations  of  the  commun- 
ity; and  he  should  have  enthusiasm  which  inspires,  a 
dominant  optimism  for  his  work,  and  an  innate  love 
for  country  life. 

If  there  is  no  prospect  that  these  elements  of  per- 
sonality, where  they  are  abnormally  weak,  can  be 
improved  by  a  college  education,  then  there  is  little 
hope  for  success  as  an  agricultural  teacher.  An  agri- 
cultural college  education  is  worth  to  the  prospective 
teacher  all  that  it  costs,  but  it  is  no  guarantee  of  suc- 
cess as  a  teacher,  unless  he  has  the  desirable  elements 
of  personality  and  loves  the  work.  When  the  strong 
personality  and  the  high  standards  of  training  are  at- 
tained, then  the  respectable  salary  is  sure.  For  voca- 
tional work  especially  the  best  teachers  are  needed, 
and  when  the  best  teachers  are  available  good  salaries 
will  inevitably  be  paid. 

Former  President  Vincent,  of  Minnesota,  says  that 
the  real  test  of  a  teacher  beyond  the  point  of  techni- 
cal preparation  is  the  test  of  imagination.  How  able 
is  the  teacher  to  see  agriculture  in  its  ideal  relation- 


THE  TEACHER  OF  AGRICULTURE         165 

ship?  The  enduring  enthusiasm,  the  driving  power  of 
pursuit,  the  real  success,  come  to  teachers  who  have 
imagination.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  who  has  the 
scientific  imagination  has  a  tremendous  advantage. 
He  is  able  to  see  agriculture  in  its  larger  and  essential 
aspects  and  to  take  a  delight  in  it.  Too  many  teachers 
of  agriculture  pin  their  faith  to  technique,  seeing  every 
problem  in  its  immediate  aspects  and  fail  to  see  in  it 
its  larger  relationships.  Agriculture  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  one  who  has  imagination  can  be  made  as  gener- 
ally a  cultural  subject  as  almost  any  subject  one  can 
find.  It  all  depends  upon  the  teacher  and  the  attitude. 
The  teacher  of  agriculture  who  has  this  large  imagina- 
tive point  of  view  refuses  to  be  segregated;  he  enters 
into  the  work  of  the  school  in  a  spirit  of  thorough 
comradeship.  He  does  not  want  special  treatment  as  if 
he  were  a  particularly  isolated  type.  He  is  willing  to 
throw  in  his  fortune  with  the  common  enterprise. 

In  all  our  technical  arrangements,  in  the  adjustments 
of  agricultural  courses  and  units,  in  the  detailed  lists 
of  problems,  and  the  like,  the  ultimate  success  of  this 
profession,  as  of  every  profession,  will  depend  upon 
the  degree  to  which  one  can  develop  an  imaginative 
background,  and  an  enthusiasm,  based  on  enduring 
faith  that  grows  out  of  the  imagination,  that  sees  the 
problem  in  its  widest  scientific,  social,  and  national 
aspects.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  with  such  imagi- 
nation, with  a  job  that  he  likes  and  for  which  he  is 
fitted,  keen,  loyal,  and  enthusiastic,  has  a  work  full 
of  dignity  and  rich  in  service. 


vn 

TEACHING  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE 

WITH  the  passage  of  the  Vocational  Education  Act, 
a  new  meaning  has  come  to  the  teaching  of  agriculture. 
We  must  train  pupils  for  the  vocation  of  farming.  In 
all  vocations  involving  processes  to  be  done  in  order 
to  accomplish  society's  needs,  instruction  must  be 
both  practical  and  theoretical.  In  the  teaching  of  any 
process,  three  phases  should  be  taken  into  account,  — 
the  rules  of  procedure,  the  reasons  and  principles  in- 
volved in  the  process,  and  the  related  studies  giving 
results  and  further  interesting  related  matter  to  enrich 
or  widen  the  pupils'  knowledge  with  reference  to  the 
process. 

Vocational  agriculture  consists  of  processes,  enter- 
prises, or  projects  in  endless  series,  in  seasonal  and 
operational  sequence  throughout  the  year,  and  year 
by  year.  We  may  organize  these  processes  into  units 
for  teaching  purposes,  by  considering  plant  production 
enterprises  or  projects  for  one  year's  work,  and  animal 
husbandry  enterprises  or  projects  for  another  year's 
work. 

The  whole  farm  is  the  farmer's  project,  and  may 
well  be  thus  considered  by  the  student  of  vocational 
agriculture  living  on  the  farm.  Even  though  the  pupil 


TEACHING  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE    166a 

may  have  a  small  project  upon  which  he  is  concen- 
trating his  attention  and  for  which  he  is  responsible, 
the  larger  units  of  operation  of  the  whole  farm  should 
be  his  field  of  problems,  study  and  practical  work. 
The  pupil  in  vocational  agriculture  may  have  as  his 
own  project  several  acres  of  corn,  but  in  the  course  of 
the  season,  there  may  be  wheat  to  harvest,  clover  hay 
to  cut,  gardens  to  cultivate,  fruit  to  pick,  etc.,  on  the 
home  farm,  and  all  of  these  enterprises  should  be  con- 
sidered as  units  of  farm  work  as  bases  for  supervised 
practice  and  instruction  in  vocational  agriculture. 

Any  single  unit  of  farm  work  then  becomes  a  subject 
for  instruction  in  vocational  agriculture,  either  in  the 
classroom  or  on  the  farm,  and  the  instruction  should 
be  given  at  the  time  or  in  the  season  when  the  farm 
operation  unit  is  in  progress.  For  example,  should  the 
unit  of  farm  operation  be  the  fall  sawing  of  wheat,  one 
of  the  processes  would  be  the  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed.  The  three  phases  of  instruction  referred  to  above 
will  apply.  In  the  first  phase,  the  rule  of  procedure  or 
the  statement  of  the  process  would  be,  "  After  the 
ground  has  been  broken  by  the  plow,  disc  and  double 
disc,  then  follow  with  a  corrugated  roller,  making  a 
compact,  finely  pulverized  surface  for  the  seed  bed." 
Good  instruction  in  vocational  agriculture  at  this 
point  would  consist  not  only  in  knowing  and  learning 
the  rules  for  the  process,  but  in  actually  doing  the 
work  under  the  supervision  and  instruction  of  a 
teacher, 


166b      THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

In  the  second  phase,  the  reasons  and  principles 
should  be  taught  and  learned.  For  example,  "  The 
corrugated  roller  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  seed- 
bed for  wheat,  because  it  serves  both  to  compact  the 
soil  and  to  pulverize  it,  leaving  a  loose,  fine  surface  for 
seeding.  The  compact  soil  is  necessary  to  permit  the 
passage  of  capillary  water  up  to  the  germinating  seed, 
and  to  furnish  good  anchorage  for  the  growing  seedling, 
and  the  loose  surface  mulch  prevents  the  soil's  drying 
out  by  excessive  evaporation." 

For  the  third  phase  of  this  study,  such  related  mat- 
ter as  a  study  of  the  different  implements  used  in  seed- 
bed preparation,  the  methods  used  in  primitive  agri- 
culture, the  further  explanation  of  soil  physics  related 
to  seed-bed  preparation,  etc.,  may  be  introduced,  de- 
pending upon  the  capabilities  and  former  training  of 
the  pupils. 

The  above  example,  treating  very  briefly  a  method 
of  teaching  one  process  in  a  farm  operation  unit,  may 
be  used  in  every  process,  of  every  farm  enterprise,  and 
illustrates  the  teaching  of  agriculture  from  the  voca- 
tional viewpoint. 


APPENDIX 

I.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  FARM,  HOME,  AND 
COMMUNITY  SURVEY1 

1.  FARM  AND  HOME  CENSUS 

THE  students  of  the  agriculture  class  should  make  this 
work  a  class  project  and  assist  the  teacher  in  getting  the 
data. 

State 

County 

Township 

Section 

School  District 

1.  Owner  of  the  farm 

2.  Number  of  acres  in  farm 

3.  Operated  by  owners  or  tenant 

4.  Number  of  years  on  this  farm 

5.  Number  of  years  in  the  community 

6.  The  village  center Population 

7.  Names  of  persons  in  the  home.    Birthplace.    Age. 


8.  Hired  help  employed. 


'  i  '  From  Nolan's  A  Year  in  Agriculture.   (Bow,  Peterson  &  Co.) 


168  APPENDIX 

9.  Members  of  family  attending  school.    Kind  of  school. 


Are  the  parents  willing  to  have  their  children  study 

agriculture,  domestic  science,  etc.,  in  school? 

10.  Church  affiliations. 


11.  Church  attendance.   Percentage  of  days  for  each  mem- 
ber. 


12.  Sunday-school   attendance.    Percentage   of   days   for 
each  member. 


13.  Societies  or  associations  represented. 


14.  Clubs  or  lodges. 


15.  Does  family  make  use  of  a  public  library?  . . 

16.  Are  agricultural  bulletins  read  in  the  home? 

17.  List  of  newspapers  in  the  home. 


APPENDIX  169 

18.  List  of  magazines  in  the  home. 

19.  List  of  community  events  attended  or  shared  in. 


20.  Members  of  family  who  are  leaders  or  officers  in  any 
rural  organization  or  institution. 


21.  Natural  resources  of  the  farm. 


Animals 


(a)  Number  and  breed  of  horses.  . 
.(ft)  .."...  "  "  .  "  cattle.. 
(c)  "  "  "  "swine.. 
(d).  "  "  "  "  sheep.. 
(e)  "  "  "  "  poultry. 


Fruit 
(a)  Size,  age,  and  condition  of  the  orchard 


(6)  Size  of  vegetable  garden , 


Farm  crops 

(a)  No.  acres  of  corn Yield . 

(6)    "       "     "  wheat "    . 

(c)    "       "     "  oats '« 


170  APPENDIX 

(d)  No.  acres  of  timothy Yield 

(«)    "       "      "  clover "    

(/)    "       "     "  alfalfa "    

(</)    "       "     in  pasture "     

(fi)    "       "     second  growth,  or  planted 

22.  Number  of  acres  of  waste  land Why  waste?. 


23.  Farm  equipment. 

(a)  Farm  buildings. 


(6)  Farm  implements.    Are  they  sheltered?. 
S 


(c)  Farm  conveyances. 


24.  Modern  conveniences  in  the  farm  home. 


25.  Size  of  yard What  measures  for 

beautifying  yard  and  farm? 

26.  Health  conditions. 

(a)  Deaths  in  the  family Causes 


(6)  What  diseases  have  been  in  the  home  during  the 
past  three  years? 


APPENDIX  171 

(c)  What  is  done  to  combat  the  housefly? 

(d)  What  is  the  source  of  the  water  supply? 

(e)  How  is  waste  and  sewage  disposed  of? 

(f)  Are  the  living  and  sleeping  rooms  well  ventilated? 

(g)  Are  there  any  superstitions  about  health? 

27.  Is  extension  service  from  the  school  desired?  What 
can  the  school  do  to  help  the  agricultural  interests  of 
the  community? 


I 


2.  COMMUNITY  CENSUS 
(Answer  as  fully  as  possible) 

7.  Natural  resources 
1.  General  topography  and  elevation 


2.  Is  there  a  soil  survey  of  your  community?  . . . 

If  so,  what  is  the  soil  type? 

The  limiting  soil  elements? 

8.  What  mineral  resources  has  the  community?.. 


4.  What  farm  products  are  sold  out  of  the  community?. . 

5.  What  farm  products  are  bought  by  the  community?  . . 

6.  What  are  the  manufacturing   interests  of   the  com- 
munity?   


17*  APPENDIX 

7.  Is  the  community  conserving  its  natural  resources?  . . . 


II.  Human  resources 

1.  The  general  moral  and  intellectual  tone  of  the  com- 
munity   

2.  Are  there  any  vicious  forces  in  the  community? 

8.  Who  are  the  strong  leaders  in  the  community  life?  . . 

4.  Has  the  community  ever  sent  out  any  men  or  women 
who  have  become  famous  in  the  world's  work? 

6.  Has  the  community  any  memories  or  traditions  which 
should  be  respected  by  coming  generation? 

6.  Are  there  any  latent  human  resources  unappreciated 
and  undeveloped? 

777.  Economic  activities  and  interests 
1.  The  leading  industries 


2.  Means  of  transportation 

8.  Means  of  communication 

4.  Condition  of  roads 

5.  Average  land  values 

6.  Is  there  any  cooperative  buying  and  selling  in  the 
neighborhood? 

7.  Do  you  have  good  markets? 

8.  Is  there  a  drift  from  the  country  to  the  city  in  your 
community? If  so  give  the  reasons  for  mov- 
ing from  the  country  to  city 


APPENDIX  173 

IV.  Community  health 
1.  General  standard  of  health  in  the  community 


2.  Are  the  health  officers  intelligent  and  alert  in  doing 
their  duty? 

3.  Have  there  been  any  serious  epidemics  in  recent  years? 

4.  What  influences  are  at  work  to  improve  health  and 
sanitary  conditions? 

V.  Local  history 

1.  Was  the  region  occupied  by  Indians  before  the  white 

men  came? What 

Indian  history  known? 


2.  Are  there  any  Indian  relics  or  indications  of  former 
occupancy? 

3.  Who  was  the  first  white  man  in  the  community? 

. .  What  is  known  of  him? 


4.  What  was  the  first  school  and  church  in  the  community? 

5.  Are  there  any  pioneers  left  to  tell  the  early  history?. . . 

6.  Has  the  community  ever  suffered  great  disaster? 

7.  Did  war  ever  touch  the  community? 

8.  Have  soldiers  ever  gone  from  the  community  to  war? . . . 


174  APPENDIX 

9.  Has  the  community  ever  taken  part  In  any  events 
noted  in  history? 

[10.  Are  there  any  great  public  works  near? 

11.  Are  there  any  historic  sites  near? 


12.  What  has  hindered  or  helped  most  in  the  community 
development? 

13.  New  England  or  Southern  ancestry? 

VI.  Political  life 
1.  What  political  parties  in  the  community? 


2.  Which  party  predominates? 

3.  Are  there  many  independent  voters? 

4.  Attitude  of  people  toward  payment  of  taxes? 

Do  farmers  feel 

overburdened? 

5.  What  are  the  various  tax  rates  for  various  purposes? 

State County Town 

Road Special  road.. School 

6.  What  is  the  assessed  value  of  the  property  of  the  dis- 
trict?  

7.  Do  the  people  know  how  the  public  money  is  being 
used? 

8.  Is  there  any  sense  of  class  distinction  in  the  community? 

9.  Is  there  a  public  opinion  in  the  community  favoring  the 
enforcement  of  law? . .  


10.  Is  there  anything  being  done  for  the  civic  education  of 
the  community? 


APPENDIX  175 

VII.  The  country  beautiful 

1.  What  natural  objects  of  beauty  in  the  community?  . . .  T 

2.  Is  the  community  doing  anything  to  protect  and  pre- 
serve the  natural  beauty? 

8.  What  influences  and  factors  if  any  are  working  to  de- 
stroy the  natural  beauty? 

4.  What  beautiful  buildings  are  in  the  community? 


5.  Are  the  streets  of  the  town  and  country  beautiful? . 

6.  Are  there  any  parks  that  have  been  beautified? . . . 


7.  What  influences  are  working  to  add  beauty  to  the  com- 
munity?   


VIII.  General  social  life 

1.  What  are  the  objects  that  draw  people  together  in  your 
community? 


2.  Are  there  any  social  gatherings  which  include  the  whole 
community? 

3.  Forms  of  commercialized  social  gatherings 


176  APPENDIX 

4.  Are  there  any  influences  which  interfere  with  the  neigh- 
borliness  of  the  community? 

5.  Special  efforts  made  to  provide  social  life  for  the  young 
people 


6.  Is  there  any  home  or  community  interest  in  the  proper 
association  of  the  young  people  with  each  other  or  do 
the  adults  hold  aloof  and  let  the  young  folks  go  their 
way? 


7.  Is  the  social  life  of  the  community  organized  around 
any  social  center 

8.  Is  there  a  federation  of  community  organizations? 


IX.  Recreations,  play,  and  amusements 
1.  List  the  recreational  activities  of  your  community? 
Indoor  Outdoor 


2.  What  institutions  are  actively  interested  in  the  recrea- 
tions of  the  people? 


APPENDIX                               177 
8.  Do  the  homes  provide  adequate  recreation? 

4.  What  organizations  are  making  provisions  for  the  recre- 
ational activities? 

5.  What  festivals,  pageants,  celebrations,  etc.,  are  held? 


6.  Is  the  play  life  in  the  community  a  constructive  ele- 
ment? . .  


A".  Religious  life 

1.  Are  the  churches  strengthening  the  religious  life  of  the 
community? 

2.  How  many  churches  and  for  what  population? . ; 


3.  How  long  is  the  average  pastorate? 

Does  the  minister  receive  a  living  salary? 

Does  he  live  in  the  community? 

4.  Do  the  ministers  visit  the  homes,  and  are  they  con- 
versant with  the  occupations  of  their  members? 

5.  Are  the  churches  strong  in  their  leadership  for  a  pro- 
:      gressive  country  life? 

6.  Are  there  any  organizations  for  young  men  and  young 

women  connected  with  the  church? Give 

name  and  number  of  members  in  each  organization. 


178  APPENDIX 

7.  Are  there  meetings,  lectures,  Sunday-Schools,  or  Chau- 
tauquas  for  general  religious  education? 


XI.  Intellectual  life 

1.  Is  there  a  community  interest  in  maintaining  good 
schools? 

2.  What  organizations  outside  of  the  school  in  the  com- 
munity contribute  to  the  intellectual  life? 

8.  Kind  of  grade  school  in  the  community?  One  teacher  or 
consolidated? 

4.  Is  a  high  school  within  reach  of  every  boy  and  girl  when 
they  are  ready  for  it? 

5.  Is  vocational  work  taught  in  the  schools?  State  what 
is  taught  if  vocational  work  is  offered 


6.  Is  the  school  attempting  to  reach  out  and  contribute  to 
the  education  of  the  whole  community? 


In  what  ways? 


H.  SUGGESTED  COURSE  IN  NATURE-STUDY 
First  Six  Grades 

FIRST  GRADE 

IN  the  first  years  of  the  school  there  is  sure  to  be  much 
unorganized  nature-study.  The  purpose  should  be  to  give 
general  acquaintance  with  and  arouse  interest  in  the  com- 
mon things  and  processes  of  nature.  Children  of  the  primary 
grades  naturally  bring  to  nature-study  the  question, "  What?  " 
In  these  grades  the  answer  should  be  given.  Birds,  trees, 
insects,  flowers,  pets,  etc.,  should  be  the  general  topics. 
Select  the  nearest  and  most  interesting  at  hand.  A  detail 
study  should  not  be  attempted  here.  It  is  better  to  refer 
briefly  to  a  topic  at  different  seasons  than  to  try  to  "finish" 
in  a  stated  time. 

Autumn  months 

1.  Discussion  of  summer  experiences  and  out-of-door  ac- 
tivities, j.  •'• 

2.  Animal  pets  about  the  house.   Annuals  that  work  for 
us.  Where  kept?  How  cared  for? 

3.  Identify  a  few  common  insects.  The  simple  life-history 
story  is  most  interesting  to  children. 

4.  Only  a  few  trees  need  be  taught.  No  principles  of  for- 
estry or  study  of  anatomy  should  be  given.   Learn  to 
recognize  and  know  by  name  ten  or  a  dozen  common 
trees.    The  nut-bearing  trees  should  be  studied  first. 
Observe  the  bark,  leaves,  and  general  form  of  the  trees. 
Autumnal  coloration  will  furnish  interesting  lessons. 
Observe  Arbor  Day:  transplant  small  trees.    Learn  to 
recognize  the  fruit  trees,  note  the  coloration  of  the  fruit. 


180  APPENDIX 

Lessons  on  evergreen  may  be  given;  how  they  differ 
from  other  common  trees.  The  Christmas  Tree;  pur- 
pose, decorations,  etc. 

5.  Informal  field  studies;  note  seed  dispersal  in  dandelion, 
thistle,  and  milkweed;  learn  names  of  a  few  common 
birds  and  wild  flowers.    Note  how  trees  and  insects 
are  preparing  for  winter. 

6.  Nature-study  myths  and  stories  may  be  used  by  a  ju- 
dicious teacher.  (See  Bingham's  Little  Folks  Land.) 

Winter  months 

1.  Some  physical  nature-study  may  be  given  here.  Study 
the  compass  and  how  to  use  it.  Teach  the  general  marks 
and  meanings  of  the  thermometer.    The  observation  of 
clouds  to  distinguish  rain  clouds  from  the  others  may 
be  made. 

2.  Make  a  weather  calendar  for  each  month,  serving  to 
teach  days  of  week,  name  of  months,  seasons,  birthdays, 
holidays,  etc.  The  relation  of  snow,  rain,  etc.,  to  tem- 
perature. The  relation  of  sun,  moon,  etc.,  to  directions. 
(Many  adults  are  weak  on  these  points.    We  have  lost 
the  woodman's  art  of  observation,  and  proper  early 
training  in  nature-study  may  help  to  regain  it.) 

8.  Plant  nasturtiums  and  other  plants  in  window  boxes. 
Care  of  potted  plants  indoors. 

4.  How  plants  and  animals  are  cared  for  in  winter.    How 
to  care  for  birds  and  pets. 

5.  Simple  lessons  in  hygiene  may  be  put  on  an  observa- 
tional basis  and  be  made  good  nature-study.  Breathing 
and  ventilation;  lessons  in  thorough  mastication;  care 
of  teeth;  table  manners,  etc. 

6.  Note  signs  of  coming  spring,  lengthening  of  days, 
weather,  early  bird  arrivals,  pussy-willow,  hibernating 

s,  etc. 


APPENDIX  181 

Spring  months 

1.  Continue  weather  charts  and  observations. 

2.  Report  on  spring  activities  at  home. 

3.  Begin  in  a  simple  way  a  bird  calendar. 

In  the  study  of  birds,  get  acquainted  with  their  com- 
mon names,  learn  to  recognize  by  song  and  sight  ten  or 
a  dozen  common  birds.  Learn  something  of  their  habits 
and  habitat.  Put  out  food,  water,  and  nesting  material. 
Keep  cats  from  the  birds. 

4.  Note  the  opening  of  the  flower  and  leaf  buds  in  the 
trees.  Review  the  names  of  trees  learned  last  autumn, 
and  recognize  them  again.    Observe  Arbor  Day  and 
Bird  Day,  plant  trees,  and  provide  nests  for  birds. 
Songs  and  poems  about  birds  and  trees. 

5.  Learn  to  know  a  few  spring  flowers.    In  the  study  of 
flowers,  learn  only  the  common  ones;   avoid  formal 
dissection  of  blossoms.  Learn  where  they  grow.   Bring 
in  wild   plants,  such  as  claytonia,  violets,  cranesbill, 
anemones,  dandelion,  etc.,  for  transplanting  in  pots, 
or  on  the  school  grounds.    A  wild-flower  chart  may 
be  made  by  the  teacher,  with  names  and  dates  of 
blooming. 

6.  The  school  garden.    Children  of  this  grade  may  plant 
a  small  school  garden  working  as  a  group.    Let  each 
child  have  a  share  if  possible.   Flowers  are  more  suit- 
able to  this  grade,  perhaps  than  vegetables.  Plant  sun- 
flower seeds,  and  nasturtiums  borders.  Popcorn,  rad- 
ishes, and  beans  may  be  planted. 

Sample  Lesson  Plans 

I.  Title:  The  Dog. 

Object:  To  teach  sympathetic  interest  in  the  dog. 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

1.  Introductory  talk  about  each  child's  dog. 


182  APPENDIX 

2.  Have  a  dog  before  the  class.  What  kind  of  a  dog  is 
this?  How  can  you  tell?   Name  other  kinds.  How 
related  to  wolf. 

3.  What  have  you  seen  the  dog  do? 

4.  How  does  he  make  his  living? 

5.  Why  do  we  like  the  dog?  How  does  he  help  us?  How 
can  we  help  him?  How  can  you  tell  a  sick  dog  from 
a  well  one? 

6.  What  harm  do  some  dogs  do? 

7.  Tell  some  good  dog  story. 

8.  Tell  about  Gentry's  Dog  Show. 

II.  Title:  The  Robin. 

Object:  To  see  and  learn  something  of  the  habits  and 

value  of  the  robin. 
Material:  A  robin  in  sight. 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

1.  Take  the  class  out  on  the  lawn,  or  in  the  orchard 
and  sit  down  to  watch  and  listen. 

2.  Learn  to  recognize  the  robin  by  its  song  as  well  as 
by  its  appearance. 

8.  Where  does  the  robin  love  to  be?  Why?  What  have 
you  seen  the  robin  doing?  When  does  it  sing  most? 
Where  does  it  nest?  Out  of  what  does  it  build  its 
nest?  Who  has  seen  a  robin's  nest?  How  many  and 
what  color  are  the  eggs? 

4.  What  does  the  robin  eat?   Is  it  our  friend?  Why? 
Could  it  be  tamed?   How?   How  can  we  help  the 
robin  in  nesting,  feeding,  and  drinking? 

5.  What  are  the  robin's  enemies?   How  can  we  pro- 
tect it? 

6.  Read  some  poem  about  the  robin. 

7.  Tell  the  legend  of  Robin  Red  Breast. 


APPENDIX  183 

SECOND  GRADE 

The  second-grade  work  in  nature-study  should  continue 
as  in  the  first  grade  with  no  sharp  demarcation,  giving  general 
acquaintance  with  and  interest  in  common  natural  and  phy- 
sical objects.  A  few  more  details  may  be  added  and  the 
same  ground  gone  over  a  second  time  with  profit.  Unless  the 
first  and  second  grades  are  in  separate  rooms,  it  is  best  to 
give  the  same  work  to  the  combined  grades  in  one  class.  If 
the  second  year  can  have  a  separate  course  and  another  year 
for  the  work,  there  could  be  no  objection  to  the  consideration 
of  the  same  general  topics  as  given  in  the  first  year,  but  it 
would  be  advisable  to  use  new  materials  to  illustrate  the  same 
principles. 

Autumn  months 

1.  Discussion  of  summer    experiences  and  out-of-door 
activities. 

2.  Continue  the  interest  in  animal  pets.   Emphasize  how 
the  animal  makes  its  living  and  how  we  can  help  it. 

3.  Learn  to  identify  a  few  more  common  insects.  How  the 
insect  makes  its  living.    How  insects  help  the  flowers. 
How  the  insect  escapes  its  enemies.    How  insects  af- 
fect our  lives.     Some  observations  of  the  honey  bee 
and  its  work. 

4.  Pupils  of  the  second  grade  should  learn  to  recognize 
eighteen  or  twenty  different  species  of  trees  by  their 
common  names.   Observe  Arbor  Day,  plant  trees  and 
follow  tree  studies  as  suggested  for  grade  one.   Study 
fruits  and  nuts  of  trees.     Identify  a  few  varieties  of 
apples  and  nuts.    How  nuts  and  fruits  are  stored  for 
winter. 

5.  Bulbs  may  be  planted  by  second-grade  pupils,  in  pots, 
window  boxes  or  in  the  school  yard. 

6.  Some  of  the  common  weeds  should  be  gathered  and 
identified. 


184  APPENDIX 

Winter  months 

1.  Continue  physical  nature-study  as  suggested  for  first 
grade.  Study  weather  signs  and  evidences  of  approach- 
ing winter.    Make  a  weather  chart,  as  described  for 
first  grade. 

2.  Some  simple  observational  studies  of  the  common  do* 
mestic  animals  are  advised  here,  —  the  horse,  cow,  etc. 
Note  the  food,  habits,  care,  etc.  No  opportunity  should 
be  lost  to  give  the  humane  phase  proper  emphasis. 

3.  Continue  simple  lessons  in  hygiene,  as  related  to  good 
habits  in  breathing  and  eating. 

4.  Make  some  observational  studies  of  winter  birds  if  pos- 
sible.  Place  suet  or  bones  on  trees  for  the  birds'  food. 
Study  the  English  sparrow,  its  habits  and  disposition. 

5.  Note  signs  of  approaching  spring,  and  make  nature- 
,       study  lessons  from  them  where  practical. 

Spring  months 

1.  Second-grade  pupils  may  learn  the  common  names  of 
about  twenty-four  common  wild  flowering  plants.  It  is 
worth  while  to  know  the  common  names  of  things  as  a 
part  of  general  human  interest. 

2.  Create  an  interest  in  the  mother  hen  and  her  chickens. 
Continue  bird  studies  as  suggested  in  grade  one. 

3.  The  garden  work  of  the  second  grade  may  take  a  prac- 
tical turn.  The  common  vegetables  are  advised  as  well 
as  flowers  for  this  grade.    Have  a  class  garden  on  the 
school  ground  if  possible,  and  let  each  pupil  or  group  of 
pupils  be  responsible  for  certain  plants.    The  "garden 
habit"  is  a  very  good  one  to  form  early  in  life.    The 
school  garden  will  furnish  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
many  interesting  lessons  in  nature-study. 

4.  Review  tree  studies  and  make  sure  of  the  names  of  those 
learned  last  fall. 


APPENDIX  185 

5.  Make  field  trips  whenever  possible  and  study  brook- 
life,  pond-life,  birds,  trees,  insects  and  flowers  wherever 
the  occasion  affords.  Have  all  excursions  well  planned 
and  organized  and  keep  the  attention  of  the  children 
constantly  to  the  natural  things  and  processes  about 
them. 

Sample  Lesson  Plans 

I.  Title:  Leaves  of  Common  Trees. 
Season :  Autumn  or  spring. 

Object:  To  review  the  names  of  ten  or  twelve  common 
trees  from  the  leaves  and  what  the  leaves  are 
for. 

Material:  Each  child  with  ten  or  twelve  leaves. 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

Plan  beforehand  to  have  each  child  bring  in  ten  or 
twelve  leaves  from  trees,  or  better  still,  go  with  the 
children  to  gather  the  leaves.  Have  them  write  the 
names  of  the  leaves  on  slips  of  paper  and  pin  to 
the  leaves.  Let  each  child  stand  and  name  his 
leaves  as  he  points  them  out.  After  becoming  fa- 
miliar with  the  leaves  ask  what  the  leaf  does.  Per- 
haps the  teacher  will  have  to  tell  that  the  leaf  gets 
part  of  the  tree's  food  for  it  out  of  the  sunshine 
and  air. 

How  do  the  leaves  help  the  children? 
What  becomes  of  them?  To  play  in  during  the  autumn. 
Are  they  good  to  eat?  etc. 
Read  some  leaf  poem  or  legend  to  the  children. 

H.  Title:  The  Rain. 

Time:  A  rainy  day  in  spring. 

Object:  to  teach  value  and  appreciation  of  the  rain. 
Subject-matter  and  method :  — 

Either  go  out  into  the  rain  a  few  minutes  with  the 
class  or  stand  before  the  window. 


186  APPENDIX 

1.  How  many  of  you  were  ever  caught  in  the  rain  and 
did  n't  care? 

2.  When  do  you  like  best  to  see  it  rain? 

3.  What  animal  seems  to  enjoy  the  rain? 

4.  Why  is  the  rain  good? 

5.  Where  does  it  come  from? 

6.  How  does  it  get  here?  Where  does  the  water  go  to? 

7.  Explain  how  it  helps  plants  and  animals  and  how 
the  water  finally  gets  to  the  rivers  and  the  ocean. 

THIRD  GRADE 

Since  the  third  grades  of  the  public  schools  usually  take  up 
oral  or  home  geography  and  since  it  should  be  placed  on  an 
observational  basis  and  deal  largely  with  the  common  things 
and  processes  of  nature,  the  nature-study  work  of  this  grade 
and  the  home  geography  should  be  combined  as  one  course. 
The  general  topics  usually  outlined  for  home  geography  will 
make  good  nature-study  material  and  the  work  outlined  for 
the  preceding  grades  will  give  good  preparation  for  this 
phase  of  the  study.  The  natural  questions  of  the  intermedi- 
ate grade  children  in  the  presence  of  nature  are,  "What?" 
and  "How?"  The  work  in  these  grades  should  answer  these 
questions. 

Autumn  months 

1.  Autumn    activities   of   farm,    orchard    and    garden. 
Location  of  country  homes  and  roads.    Simple  maps 
of  school  grounds,  and  home  grounds.    The  grouping 
of  houses  in  town  and  the  arrangement  of  streets.   In- 
terpretation of  maps. 

2.  The  surface  of  the  land.    Lessons  on  hills,  valleys, 
streams,  prairies,  etc. 

3.  Methods  of  transportation  and  travel;  communication; 
post-office,  telephone,  roads.     Foodstuffs  bought  and 
sold  in  the  community.    Pupils  may  begin  to  realize 


APPENDIX  187 

the  relation  of  the  farmer  as  a  producer  to  the  city 
dweller  as  a  consumer. 

4.  The  study  of  fruits,  grains,  and  other  farm  products 
used  as  foods.  The  harvesting,  preserving,  and  storing 
of  food  supplies  in  autumn. 

Winter  months 

1.  The  materials  used  in  building  our  homes  furnish  a 
basis  for  observational  work  on  trees,  lumber,  stone, 
brick,  sand,  clay,  etc.  Observe  the  effects  of  weathering 
on  these  materials.  Have  pupils  report  on  home  obser- 
vations of  these  materials.  Different  workmen  engaged 
in  building  our  houses. 

2.  Water.  Various  forms  of  water.    How  we  get  water  in 
country  and  city.   How  plants  get  water.  Why  water 
is  sometimes  muddy.     Effects  of    water  on  soil   in 
washing,  etc.    How  hinds  are  drained,  naturally  and 
artificially. 

3.  Observation  of  soils.  Grow  plants  in  pots  of  rich  soil 
and  poor  soil.  Kinds  of  soil  in  the  community.  Weather 
effects  on  soils. 

4.  Simple  hygiene  of  the  home   and   its   surroundings. 
Methods  of  heating,  lighting,  and  ventilating.  Sanitary 
conditions.  These  may  be  put  on  an  observational  basis 
and  be  good  nature-study. 

Spring  months 

1.  School  garden  work  is  well  adapted  to  this  grade.  Each 
pupil  should  have  his  own  plot  of  ground  for  a  garden. 
Relate  the  garden  work  to  home  life.  Pupils  should 
note  the  home  markets  for  local  and  foreign  supplies, 
and  learn  where  the  products  go  and  come  from  on  the 
markets.  Note  time  required  for  germination  of  seeds. 
Identify  weeds  and  combat  them  as  they  appear  in  the 
garden. 


188  APPENDIX 

2.  Flowers  and  trees  in  relation  to  the  home.  Beautifying 
the  home  grounds  is  often  a  topic  in  home  geography, 
and  hence  here  in  the  nature-study  is  offered  an  op- 
portunity to  study  flowers,  trees,  wild  plants,  bulbs, 
flower-gardens,  etc.,  in  connection  with  the  beautifying 
of  home  and  school  grounds. 

8.  Review  the  pupils'  acquaintance  with  the  common  trees, 
wild  flowers,  birds,  insects  and  grains  and  grasses  of 
the  community. 

4.  All  these  topics  of  the  third  year  should  be  unified  and 
organized  about  the  home  life  and  interests  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Sample  Lesson  Plans 

1.  Title:  Varieties  of  Radishes. 
Season:  Spring. 
Aim:  To  demonstrate  best  kind  of  radishes  to  grow  in  the 

garden. 

Material:  Radish  seeds,  box  of  soil  or  garden  plot. 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

v  Sow  as  many  different  kinds  of  radish  seeds  as  you 
can  get  in  a  large  box  of  soil  or  in  a  garden  plot. 
After  about  twenty-five  days  the  radishes  will  be 
ready  for  the  lesson.  Have  tops  and  roots  of  rad- 
ishes from  all  varieties  shown  on  the  table  before 
the  class. 

Ask  such  questions  as:  — 
"What  color  is  best?" 
"What  size  is  best?"1'1 
"What  number  could  you  grow  on  a  square  foot 

space,  depending  on  size  of  these  tops?" 
"Which  ones  have  best  flavor?" 
Separate  those  selected  as  best  and  review  reasons  for 
the  selection. 


APPENDIX  189 

H.  Title:  A  Bird  Calendar. 
Season:  Spring. 
Aim:  To  record  early  arrivals. 
Materials:  A  chart  as  suggested  below. 
Subject-matter  and  method :  — 

On  some  large  cardboard  or  on  some  unused  corner  of 
the  blackboard,  neatly  draw  off  a  table  in  which 
the  teacher  may  record  the  observations  of  bird  ar- 
rivals made  by  the  children. 


Bird's  Name 

Date  of  Arrival 

Seen  by  — 

Have  pupils  report  when  they  see  a  new  bird  arrival, 

and  write  it  in  the  calendar. 
Talk  with  the  children  about  where  birds  go  in  winter. 

Why  they  go.  Why  they  come  back.  Tell  them  of 

the  long  dangerous  flight,  and  of  the  welcome  and 

help  they  deserve. 
Read  Longfellow's  "Birds  of  Killingworth." 

FOURTH  GRADE 

The  fourth-grade  work  in  nature-study  should  be  corre- 
lated closely  with  the  primary  geography  used  in  this  grade; 
in  fact  the  courses  might  easily  be  run  together.  The  indus- 
trial phase  of  the  geography  work  as  well  as  the  study  of  the 
natural  objects  and  phenomena  of  the  earth  about  the  pupils 
furnish  excellent  nature-study  material. 

Autumn  months 

1.  Supplementary  to  and  alternating  with  the  textbook 
work  in  the  primary  geography,  the  nature-study  may 
take  up  the  farm  products  of  the  community,  making 


190  APPENDIX 

observations  and  reports  as  follows  Upon  corn,  wheat, 
clover,  potatoes,  tomatoes,  etc. 

(a)  Observations  and  classroom  talks  about  the  whole 

plant,  root,  stems,  leaves  and  fruit. 
(6)  Where  and  to  what  extent  these  crops  are  grown 
in  the  community. 

(c)  Where  and  how  marketed  or  used.  Market  prices 
of  each. 

(d)  Factors  of  the  season,  determining  the  success  or 
failure  of  the  crop. 

(e)  Collecting    and    mounting    of    farm    products, 
weeds,  grasses,  grains,  etc.,  for  a  school  collec- 
tion. 

2.  Farm  animal  studies  as  suggested  by  the  following 
outline:  — 

(a)  Farm  animals  raised  in  the  community.     The 

principal  money-making  animals. 
(6)  Reports  of  the  number  and  kind  on  each  farm, 
(c)  Where  the  farm  animals    are    marketed    and 

shipped. 
((Z)  Plans  for  feeding  and  sheltering  the  farm  animals 

in  winter. 

8.  The  wild  animals  of  the  State;  habitat,  habits,  food, 
uses  and  values,  methods  of  conserving  or  extermi- 
nating. Determine  which  should  be  saved  and  which 
killed. 

Winter  months 

1.  How  plants  and  animals  prepare  for  winter.   Take  up 
numerous  special  examples.  Study  the  evergreen  trees 
and  their  special  adaptation  to  winter.  Learn  to  iden- 
tify the  evergreens  of  the  community. 

2.  Supplement  the  study  of  hills,  valleys,  rivers,  etc.,  as 
taken  up  in  the  geography,  by  observation  lessons 
of   these  objects  wherever  feasible.    Note  effects  of 
washing  of  streams,  and  weathering  of  rocks.   Trace 


APPENDIX  191 

the  rain  water  from  ocean  to  ocean,  noting  the  various 
changes  it  undergoes  and  the  effects  it  produces  on 
climate,  soils,  water-supply,  etc. 

3.  As  the  various  industries,  such  as  fishing,  lumbering, 
mining,  manufacturing,  farming,  etc.,  are  taken  up  in 
the  primary  geography,  supplement  the  work  freely 
with  nature-study  lessons  on  the  materials  used  in 
these  industries. 

(a)  In  lumbering,  review  names  of  trees  and  note  by 
observations  the  nature  of  some  of  the  various 
woods  used. 

(6)  In  manufacturing,  note  as  much  of  the  raw  ma- 
terial used  as  possible,  the  fibers  used  in  rope- 
making,  hides  for  leather,  various  corn  prod- 
ucts, sand  and  cement,  wool,  cotton,  etc. 

(c)  In  mining,  observe  coal,  iron  ore,  limestone,  crude 
oil,  copper,  etc. 

(d)  In  fishing,  make  observational  studies  if  possible 
of  fish,  both  alive  and  the  canned  goods  on  the 
market.  Read  of  the  great  salmon  fisheries. 

4.  Continue  lessons  in  home,  school,  and  personal  hygiene. 

Spring  months 

1.  Have  school  garden  and  carry  out  some  plans  as  sug- 
gested for  grade  three.     Encourage  the  growing  of 
home  gardens  for  the  production  of  vegetables  for  the 
market. 

2.  Have  review  lessons  in  the  identification  of  trees,  birds, 
insects,  and  wild  flowers  as  the  coming  of  spring  calls 
attention  to  them. 

3.  Continue  the  correlation  of  the  industries  with  natural 
objects,  as  suggested  for  the  whiter  months,  especially 
that  of  farming  with  the  materials  the  farmer  deals  with 
in  the  spring. 


192  APPENDIX 

Sample  Lesson  Plans 

I.  Title:  Brook  Studies. 
Season :  Spring  or  autumn. 
Aim:  To  learn  something  of  the  life  and  nature  of  the 

brook. 

Material:  An  excursion  to  the  brook. 
Subject-matter  and  method :  — 

Several  excursions  can  be  made  to  a  brook,  wherever 
available,  each  time  with  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing objects: — 

1.  Make  exact  measurements  of  the  length  and  width 
of  the  brook. 

2.  List  the  common  names  of  the  trees,  bushes,  and 
other  plants  along  the  brookside,  also  of  any  plant 
life  in  the  brook. 

S.  Record  the  animal  life  seen  in  or  near  it. 

4.  Make  a  map  of  the  section  observed. 

5.  What  farms  or  home  grounds  touch  it? 

6.  What  changes  occur  in  its  course  from  time  to  time? 

7.  What  lands  does  it  drain?  Its  source,  mouth-tribu- 
taries, etc. 

8.  Its  value  to  the  community. 

II.  Title:  The  Horse-Chestnut  Tree. 
Season:  At  any  tune  when  in  leaf. 
Aim :  To  get  acquainted  with  the  horse-chestnut  tree. 
:  Material:  Class  before  a  tree. 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

1.  Gather  the  children  about  a  horse-chestnut  tree  and 
tell  them,  "We  are  now  going  to  get  acquainted 
with  this  tree." 

2.  Ask,  "Who  knows  the  name  of  this  tree?" 

3.  Does  the  tree  bear  fruit?  What  kind? 

4.  Has  the  tree  blossomed  yet? 

5.  How  many  times  taller  than  John  is  it? 


APPENDIX  .     193 

6.  How  could  you  tell  this  tree  if  you  would  meet  it 
again? 

7.  What  is  the  tree  good  for?  Can  we  help  the  tree  any? 

8.  Tell  a  legend  of  the  horse-chestnut. 

(Similar  studies  may  be  made  of  all  common 
trees.) 

FIFTH  GRADE 

(May  be  alternated  with  sixth-grade  work  and  both  grades  com- 
bined each  year.) 

Since  statistics  show  that  large  numbers  of  the  school  pop- 
ulation drop  out  about  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades,  it  becomes 
very  important  that  the  nature-study  work  of  these  grades 
should  give  to  the  future  citizens  correct  and  helpful  informa- 
tion along  biological  and  physical  lines,  enabling  them  to  ad- 
just themselves  more  sympathetically  and  intelligently  to 
their  environments.  It  would  seem  best  therefore  to  have 
some  rather  intensive  work  along  the  larger  and  more  impor- 
tant groups  of  nature  material  affecting  human  interests. 
Economic  considerations  appeal  to  the  children,  but  these 
should  not  be  over-emphasized.  Children  should  keep  good 
notebooks,  prepare  pictures,  charts,  calendars,  etc.  It  should 
not  be  the  aim  in  these  grades  to  attempt  technical  informa- 
tion or  to  develop  the  scientific  spirit,  but  to  arouse  a  perma- 
nent and  intelligent  interest  in  the  common  things  and  proc- 
esses of  nature,  so  that  the  boy  or  girl  may  become  a  citizen, 
able  and  willing  to  do  effective  economic  work  for  his  com- 
munity. In  addition  to  the  questions, "  What  f  "  and  "  How  ?  " 
pupils  of  these  grades  begin  to  ask  "  Why  ?"  hi  the  presence 
of  nature  phenomena.  At  least  two  half -hour  periods  a  week 
should  be  given  to  this  work. 

Autumn  months:  trees  and  insects 

1.  Insect  studies,  —  the  interesting  common  species  re- 
lated to  human  life. 


1M  APPENDIX 

(a)  Begin  with  a  study  of  the  grasshopper.  Learn 
from  observation,  the  number  of  legs,  segments 
of  the  body,  eyes,  feelers,  wings,  etc.  Note  the 
chewing  mouth  parts.  Examine  these  parts  with 
a  hand-lens.  Make  drawing  of  the  grasshopper. 
This  study  should  give  some  idea  of  the  nature  of 
insect  bodies. 

(6)  Make  similar  study  of  the  squash  bug.  Note  es- 
pecially the  sucking  mouth  parts.  Teach  that 
insects  injure  plants  by  chewing  or  sucking.  Ex- 
plain methods  of  combating  each  kind.  Show 
samples  of  insecticides  and  explain  how  to  use  a 
few  of  these. 

(c)  Injurious  insects  of  the  garden :  identify  and  note 
damages  done  by  potato  beetle,  cucumber  beetle, 
cabbage  worm,  squash  bug,  aphids,  and  others; 
native  insect  enemies,  —  toads,  bats,  birds,  help- 
ful insects. 

(d)  Life-history  of  the  mosquito,  —  the  story  of  ma- 
laria and  yellow  fever;  demonstration  of  how  to 
kill  larvae  and  pupae;  organized  community  work 
against  mosquito. 

(e)  The  house  fly  and  its  deadly  injury  in  carrying 
typhoid  and  other  germs.  Life-history  and  meth- 
ods of  combating  it. 

(f)  Insects  injurious  to  fruit  and  shade  trees;  identifi- 
cation and  simple  life  histories.  Methods  of  com- 
bating. 

(g)  Beneficial  insects,  —  ground  beetles,  lady  bee- 
tles, ichneumon  flies,  bees,  etc.  Special  study  of 
the  bumble  and  honey  bee. 

2.  Tree  studies.  Some  simple  elementary  text,  such  as 
Roth's  First  Book  of  Forestry,  Price's  The  Land  We  Live 
In,  or  Pinchot's  Primer  of  Forestry,  might  probably  be 
used  as  a  guide  in  tree  studies  for  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grades. 


APPENDIX  195 

(a)  Tree  census  and  map  of  a  convenient  woodlot. 

Review  of  common  names  of  trees  identified. 
(6)  Tree  planting,  celebration  of  Arbor  Day,  and 

attention  to  some  historic  trees. 

(c)  Study  of  gross  anatomy  of  trees,  —  leaves,  fruit, 
branches,  trunk,  roots,  etc.  Comparative  studies 
of  different  trees. 

(d)  Trees  of  the  State;  explanation  of  the  prairies, 
forest  enemies,  fires,  insects,  destructive  lumber- 
ing; Government  forest  reserves  and  the  United 
States  Forest  Service;  the  foresters'  life;  lumber- 
ing; uses  of  wood;  collection  of  samples. 

(e)  The  farmer's  woodlot.    Some  points  in  the  care 
of  woodlot,  such  as  preventing  fire,  cleaning  out 
dead  and  decaying  trees,  and  keeping  brows- 
ing cattle  out.  Planting  of  catalpa,  locust,  and 
osage  for  posts  and  farm  wood  supplies.    A  plot 
in  the  school  garden  should  be  planted  to  catalpa 
seedlings. 

(f)  Some  attention  to  fruit  trees;  how  they  differ 
from  forest  trees  in  habits  of  growth  and  in  cul- 
tivation and  care  given  them. 

Winter  months 

1.  Census  of  the  domestic  animals  of  the  neighborhood. 
The  market  values  of  each  kind  of  farm  animal.    Use 
for  reference  Davenport's  Twelve  Studies  of  Farm  Ani- 
mals.   Make  observational  comparisons  between  draft 
horses  and  driving  horses;    between  beef  cattle  and 
dairy  cattle;  between  pure-bred  stock  and  "scrubs." 

2.  The  wild  animal  population  of  the  State,  including  the 
winter  birds.     If  possible  make  observations  on  cap- 
tured wild  animals.   Note  their  structural  adaptation 
to  the  life  they  live  and  to  how  they  make  their  living. 
Determine  whether  they  are  beneficial  or  destructive 


196  APPENDIX 

to  human  interests.  If  beneficial,  how  we  may  help 
them;  if  destructive,  how  to  destroy  them.  Read 
Seton's  Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known. 

8.  Elementary  observational  studies  of  soils  and  rocks. 
How  soils  are  formed  by  water  and  frost.  Identifica- 
tion of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  loam,  silt;  characterize  local 
soils.  Collection  and  study  of  pebbles,  minerals,  rock 
specimens,  glacial  evidences,  and  fossils. 

4.  Simple  astronomical  observations;  apparent  path  of  the 
sun;  great  dipper;  phases  of  the  moon;  milky  way; 
north  star;  the  evening  and  morning  star.  Keep  in- 
dividual weekly  weather  book  during  one  month;  con- 
struct graph  for  each  week  from  observed  date. 

Spring  months:  garden  work,  crop  growth,  and  birds 

1.  Birds. 

(a)  Prepare  a  bird  calendar  upon  which  to  note 
early  and  late  arrivals;  habits  in  feeding,  nesting, 
habitat,  etc.  Learn  to  identify  by  sight  and  song 
as  many  birds  as  possible;  study  the  migration 
phenomena. 

(6)  Protecting  and  helping  the  birds;  providing  food, 
water,  houses,  and  nesting  materials;  economic 
and  aesthetic  values  of  birds;  bird  enemies, — cats, 
thoughtless  boys,  and  men,  etc. 

(c)  Group  and  learn,  birds  of  prey,  seed-eating  birds, 
insectivorous  birds,  good  songsters,  winter  birds, 
etc. 

(d)  The  Audubon  Society;  its  work  and  aims;  pos- 
sibly the  organization  of  a  chapter  in  school. 

(e)  Learn  how  to  make  field  excursions  to  study  and 
observe  birds. 

2.  Home  and  school  garden  work. 

The  garden  work  in  this  grade  should  be  made  of 
real  practical  value.    It  should  include  a  study  and 


APPENDIX  197 

practice  in  the  preparation  of  ground,  planting  the 
seed,  cultivating  the  vegetables,  combating  the  pests, 
harvesting  and  disposing  of  the  products.  Records 
of  expenses  and  receipts  in  simple  businesslike  forma 
should  be  kept.  The  garden  should  be  an  individual 
possession  of  each  student,  either  at  school  or  at 
home,  preferably  the  latter,  and  it  should  include 
the  standard  vegetable  crops.  Attention  should  be 
given  in  a  practical  way  to  the  planting  of  flowers, 
shrubs,  and  trees  in  the  beautifying  of  home  and  school 
grounds. 
8.  Field  crops,  seeds,  weeds,  tillage,  etc. 

(a)  Seeds  and  seedlings;  conditions  of  growth;  simple 

experiments  in  germination  and  growth. 
(6)  The  clovers;  identify  all  the  clovers  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, note  difference  and  common  charac- 
teristics; economic  values  of  clovers. 

(c)  Encourage  boys  and  girls  to  plant  corn  plots  at 
home,  to  grow  corn  to  exhibit  next  fall  in  the 
corn  show.   Study  elementary  principles  of  corn 
culture. 

(d)  Identification    and    life   histories  of  the  most 
common  weeds;  means  of  combating;  make  school 
collections  of  weeds. 

(e)  Observe  the  field  work  of  ploughing,  preparing 
seed  beds,  and  various  methods  of  tillage.    Try 
to  understand  reasons  for  the  practices  observed. 

Sample  Lesson  Plans 

I.  Title:  The  Codling  Moth  as  an  Apple  Pest. 
Season :  Autumn  or  spring. 
Aim:  To  teach  something  of  the  injuries  done  by  the 

codling  moth. 

Materials:  Some  knotty,  wormy  apples  and  bark  con- 
taining moth  cocoons. 


198  APPENDIX 

Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

1.  Have  some  knotty  apples  for  observation,  and 
show  the  worms  in  these  apples.  Cause  the  children 
to  understand  that  the  apples  would  be  good  if  the 
worms  were  not  in  them.   Tell  of  the  great  loss  due 
to  these  moths. 

2.  Tell  the  life-history  of  the  codling  moth.    If  pos- 
sible, have  some  pieces  of  old  apple  bark  behind 
which  the  larvae  and  pupse  live.    Lead  the  pupils 
to  see  that  it  would  be  a  good  thing  to  scrape  this 
bark  off  and  whitewash  the  tree  or  wash  it  with 
soap  solutions. 

8.  Ask,  "How  many  ever  saw  a  woodpecker  on  the 
trunk  of  an  apple  tree?"  "What  was  he  doing?" 
Explain  value  of  these  birds  in  eating  moth  larvse. 

4.  Explain  how  men  spray  poison  on  apple  trees  to  kill 
the  codling  moth. 

II.  Title:  The  Moon. 

Season:  When  the  moon  is  visible. 

Aim!  To  teach  something  of  the  moon  and  its  phases. 

Subject-matter  and  method :  — 

If  possible  go  with  the  class  on  a  moonlight  night  to 

observe  and  talk  about  the  moon. 
In  the  class  next  day,  after  the  teacher  has  asked  the 
pupils  individually  to  observe  the  moon,  if  no  ex- 
cursion could  be  made,  ask:  — 
A.  1.  At  what  time  did  you  see  the  moon? 

2.  Go  to  the  blackboard  and  sketch  its  shape. 

3.  All  look  again  to-night  and  fill  out  this  table:  — 


Date 

Shape  and 
Phase 

Part  of  Sky 

Hours  since 
it  arose 

Time  of 
Setting 

APPENDIX  199 

4.  Keep  up  a  series  of  observations  and  records 
in  above  table. 

B.  When  the  moon  is  in  the  first  quarter,  — 

1.  Where  is  it  in  the  sky? 

2.  How  do  the  horns  point? 

5.  How  does  its  distance  from  the  horizon  vary 
each  evening? 

C.  When  the  moon  is  in  the  second  quarter,  — 

1.  Where  is  the  moon  when  half  at  sunset? 

2.  How  old  is  the  moon  at  half? 

3.  Which  direction  from  the  zenith  is  it  seen  each 
evening? 

D.  When  the  moon  is  hi  the  third  quarter,  — 

1.  It  begins  the  quarter  full,  —  when  arise? 

2.  How  long  since  it  was  new? 
8.  How  long  from  full  to  full? 

4.  What  quarter  is  completed  when  full? 

5.  How  many  full  moons  in  a  year? 

E.  When  the  moon  is  in  the  fourth  quarter,  — 

1.  When  is  it  seen? 

2.  What  direction  from  the  sun? 

8.  What  becomes  of  the  moon  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  quarter? 

How  does  the  moon  give  light? 
Read:  "The  New  Moon,"  Mrs.  Pollen. 

"The  Silver  Boat,"  George  McDonald. 

"The  Wind  and  the  Moon,"  George  Mc- 
Donald. 

SIXTH  GRADE 
(Alternated  with  fifth-grade  work  advisable  to  take  fifth  grade  first.) 

In  the  sixth  grade,  we  may  begin  a  correlation  of  physical 
nature-study  with  geography  and  arithmetic.  At  least  two 
periods  a  week  may  profitably  be  given  to  separate  topics, 


200  APPENDIX 

such  as  light,  heat,  sound,  and  possibly  electricity,  keeping 
always  in  mind  the  nature-study  viewpoint,  and  avoiding 
science  abstractions.  The  work  in  both  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grades  should  gradually  point  the  way  to  the  sciences  and 
vocations  which  it  has  served  to  develop  and  introduce. 

Autumn  months 

1.  Water,  its  composition,  weight,  and  other  physical  and 
chemical  characteristics,  impurities  in  water  and  sources 
of  contamination;  hard  and  soft  water;  evaporation, 
formation  of  clouds;  precipitation  in  rain  and  snow; 
and  final  disposition  of  water  in  plant  and  animal  life 
and  streams;  city  and  farm  water-supply. 

2.  Soil  and  water  relations.  Illustrate  capillarity  in  lamp 
wick  and  in  soils;  demonstrate  water  filtration  through 
sand,  clay,  and  loam  soils.  Study  disposition  of  water  in 
field  drainage  and  sewer  tiles. 

8.  Elementary  studies  of  air,  —  a  substance  composed  of 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon  dioxide  and  water  vapor; 
brief  references  to  the  uses  of  these  elements  and 
compounds  to  plant  and  animal  life;  air  pressure,  and 
uses  of  the  barometer;  the  siphon  and  its  uses;  interpre- 
tation of  the  common  suction  pumps;  motion  of  the 
air;  winds  and  their  causes;  provisions  for  pure  air  in 
ventilation  systems;  air  in  combustion,  necessary  in 
lamps,  stoves,  etc. 

4.  Simple  tools  and  machines;  various  levers,  wheel  and 
axle,  pulley,  derrick,  etc. 

Winter  months 

1.  What  heat  does,  —  helps  our  plants,  cooks  our  food, 
runs  engines,  makes  us  comfortable  in  winter,  etc.; 
how  we  get  heat  (this  should  start  a  series  of  sug» 
gestions  from  pupils  which  the  teacher  may  classify); 
demonstrations  may  be  given  to  show  all  these,  — 


APPENDIX  201 

friction,  combustion,  chemical  action,  electricity,  etc.; 
how  measured;  methods  of  transmitting  heat;  methods 
of  heating  buildings;  exercises  to  show  how  different 
materials  differ  in  their  power  of  transmission  of  heat; 
reasons  for  common  apparatus  and  phenomena,  — 
wooden  handles,  action  of  window  glass,  etc. ;  the  ques- 
tion of  the  hygiene  of  clothing;  illustrations  and  ex- 
planation of  expansion,  melting,  freezing,  ice,  etc. 
Avoid  generalizations  of  science. 

2.  Studies  of  light.  It  is  not  necessary  to  try  to  explain 
what  heat,  light,  or  electricity  is  in  this  work.  There  is 
much  ignorance  of  common  things  even  from  a  simple 
observational  basis.  What  light  does  for  us;  sources  of 
our  light;  artificial  lighting  systems;  structure  and 
operation  of  kerosene  lamp,  gasolene  lamps,  carbide 
and  electric  lights;  opaque,  translucent,  and  transpar- 
ent bodies;  simple  lenses,  the  camera,  the  stereopticon, 
and  the  eye;  the  rainbow. 

S.  Studies  of  sound,  —  what  sound  is,  musical  instru- 
ments correlate  with  music  in  study  of  sound  and  har- 
mony; the  telephone;  the  graphophone;  the  ear. 

Spring  months 

1.  Simple  studies  in  electricity;  its  common  uses  and 
methods  of  production.   Try  if  possible  to  understand 
how  electricity  functions  in  street  cars,  telephones, 
automobiles,  etc. 

2.  Simple  chemistry  of  cleaning;  making  of  soap,  sol- 
vents for  grease,  paint,  etc.;  dangers  and  treatment  of 
dust;  values  of  cleanliness  in  person,  home,  bams,  food- 
supplies,  etc.   Sources  of  dust  and  dirt  and  methods  of 
eradicating. 

S.  Elementary  life  relations  of  plants  and  animals  to  the 
various  physical  processes  and  phenomena  studies,  to 
heat,  light,  soil,  water,  air,  etc. 


202  APPENDIX 

Sample  Lesson  Plans 

I.  Title:  The  Clouds. 
Season :  At  any  time. 

Aim:  To  learn  the  common  clouds  and  what  they  por- 
tend. 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

Take  the  children  out-of-doors  when  different  kinds  of 
clouds  are  flying. 

1.  Ask  them  to  point  out  the  different  colors  and 
shapes  of  clouds  they  observe. 

2.  Can  you  see  the  clouds  moving?  From  what  direc- 
;     tion  do  they  come?  ••£•:•':• 

3.  What  are  the  clouds?  What  do  they  do? 

4.  What  color  are  rain  clouds? 

5.  Can  you  tell  when  it  is  going  to  rain? 

6.  From  what  direction  does  most  of  our  rain  come? 

7.  Explain  to  the  children  the  kinds  of  clouds  that 
mean  ram  and  the  kind  that  mean  fair  weather. 

8.  Explain  the  simple  weather  signals. 

II.  Title:  How  We  Get  Heat. 

Season :  At  any  time. 

Aim:  To  demonstrate  some  sources  of  heat. 

Materials:  Two  small  blocks  of  wood,  test  tube,  and 

some  hydrochloric  acid,  or  unslaked  lime  and  water, 

matches,  electric  current,  etc. 
Subject-matter  and  method:  — 

1.  To  demonstrate  that  friction  is  a  source  of  heat, 
rub  vigorously  two  wooden  blocks  together  and 
have  pupils  feel  the  heat  of  the  block  generated. 
List  many  examples  and  classify  under  friction. 

2.  Combustion.    Strike  a  match.    Explain  cause  of 
ignition.  Explain  the  continued  burning.  List  other 
examples. 


APPENDIX 


203 


3.  Chemical  action.    Pour  water  on  unslaked  lime 
and  note  the  heat  evolved.   Pour  also  a  few  drops 
of  hydrochloric  acid  into  a  test  tube  about  one 
fourth  full  of  water.  Note  heat.  List  other  examples. 

4.  Electricity.     If  there  is  an  electric  incandescent 
light  in  the  room,  turn  on  the  current  and  feel  the 
heat  on  the  globe.  Give  practical  uses  made  of  this 
source  of  heat. 

Classify  your  examples  as  follows:  — 


Sources  and  Examples  of  Heat 


Friction 

Combustion 

Chemical  Action 

Electricity 

Note.  Many  exercises  in  the  new  texts  on  elementary  and 
general  sciences  are  suitable  for  the  Nature-study 
work  of  this  grade. 


HI.  SUGGESTED  COURSE  IN  ELEMENTS  OF 
AGRICULTURE 

Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades 
THE  TEXTBOOK  METHOD 

SEVENTH  GRADE 

THE  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  be  combined,  and 
the  work  here  outlined  for  these  grades  given  in  alternate 
years.  The  elements  of  vocational  agriculture  follow  logi- 
cally a  course  in  nature-study  such  as  outlined  for  the  first  six 
grades.  The  subject-matter  given  in  various  textbooks  as 
outlined  below  should  follow  the  seasonal  sequence  wherever 
possible  and  be  used  as  a  basis  for  classroom  recitations  and 
demonstrations.  For  the  practical  work  pupils  should  do  the 
real  things  of  the  farm,  including  the  chores  and  such  work 
in  crop  and  animal  production  as  they  are  able  to  do. 

THE  PLANT  INDUSTRIES  AND  RELATED  TOPICS 

Autumn  months 

1.  Reports  of  vacation  activities:  garden,  farm,  or  club 
work  done  by  the  pupils. 

2.  Census  of  leading  crops  produced  among  the  farmers 
of  the  community  during  the  summer. 

3.  Maps  of  home  farms,  showing  general  lay-out  of  fields, 
lots,  and  buildings. 

4.  List  the  farm  activities  in  the  community  for  the  au- 
tumn season. 

5.  Study  of  the  plant,  life  cycle,  how  it  feeds,  grows,  re- 
produces, etc. 


APPENDIX  205 

6.  The  wheat  crop. 

(a)  Facts  of  general  interest  about  wheat. 

(b)  Preparation  of  ground. 

(c)  Methods  of  sowing. 

(d)  Study  of  the  wheat  seed  and  its  germination,  and 
of  the  wheat  plant.  Note  requirements  of  germ- 
ination of  seed. 

(e)  The  products  of  wheat;  extent  and  value  of  the 
crop. 

(f)  Varieties  best  suited  to  the  locality. 
(</)  Insect  and  fungous  enemies  of  wheat. 

7.  Selecting  and  storing  seed  corn. 

(a)  Field  selection  of  seed  corn,  some  points  to  note 

and  methods  of  selection. 
(6)  Judging  and  scoring  corn. 

(c)  Methods  of  storing  seed  corn. 

(d)  Corn  contests  and  corn  days  at  school. 

(e)  Importance  and  value  of  corn  crops ;  com  products. 

8.  Weeds  and  grasses. 

(a)  Identification  of  autumn  weeds  and  grasses. 
(6)  Review  of  methods  of  seed  dispersal. 

(c)  How  various  plants  prepare  for  winter. 

(d)  Seeds  and  bulbs  planted  in  the  fall. 

Winter  months 

1.  Elementary  soil  studies, 
(a)  How  soil  is  formed. 
(6)  Kinds  of  soil,  —  clay,  sand,  and  loam. 

(c)  Relations  of  soil  to  water  and  to  plants. 

(d)  Some  methods  of  improving  soil. 

(e)  Some  values  of  stable-manure  and  how  to  use  it. 

(f)  Some  commercial  fertilizers  and  how  to  find  out 
what  to  use. 

(g)  Excess  of  water  in  the  soil,  —  how  to  remove  it, 
why  remove  it. 


206  APPENDIX 

(A)  How  clover  helps  the  soil.  What  crop  rotation 
means. 

(i)  Reports  of  soils  on  the  home  farm. 
2.  Farm  accounts  and  records. 

(a)  Some  simple  farm  business  accounts,  such  as  live- 
stock, egg,  garden,  or  field  accounts  of  actual 
conditions  and  transactions. 

(6)  Records  of  fields  and  crops  rotations,  showing 
expenditures,  labor,  and  net  returns. 

(c)  Farm  taxes,  insurance,  and  general  business  af- 
fairs of  the  home  farms. 

(d)  Make  daily  weather  records  and  study  United 
States  signal  service. 

(e)  Study  Year  Book  of  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  comparative  statistical  reports 
on  farm  crops  of  the  State. 

Spring  months 

1.  The  farm  orchard  —  the  apple. 

(a)  Selecting  the  site. 

(6)  Choosing  and  ordering  the  nursery  stock. 

(c)  Preparing  the  ground  for  the  trees. 

(d)  Setting  out  the  young  trees. 

(e)  Pruning  the  young  trees. 
(/)  Cultivating  the  orchard. 
(g)  Spraying  apple  trees. 

(h)  Picking,  packing,  storing,  and  marketing  fruit. 

2.  Seeds  and  seedlings. 

(a)  Study  the  structure  of  various  large  seeds. 
(6)  Germination  of  seeds  and  growth  of  seedlings. 

(c)  Testing  seed  corn  and  clover  seed. 

(d)  Simple  life  relations  of  soil,  water,  air,  and  light 
to  growing  plants  in  field  and  garden. 

(e)  Practical  exercises  in  growing  plants  in  field  and 
garden. 


APPENDIX  207 

S.  Garden  and  field  plot  work. 

(a)  Have  individual  school  or  home  gardens  with 
definite,  well-defined  plans  of  preparation,  plant- 
ing, care,  and  disposition  of  the  products. 
(6)  Encourage  the  organization  of  corn  clubs,  and 
other  agricultural  clubs,  for  the  growing  of  field 
plots  in  contests. 

4.  Planting  and  cultivation  of  field  crops. 

(a)  Planting  and  culture  of  potatoes,  —  the  how  and 
why  of  best  methods. 

(b)  Standard  methods  of  planting  and  cultivating 
corn. 

(c)  When  and  how  to  sow  clover  and  alfalfa. 

(d)  Weeds,  their  injury  and  control  —  importance 
of  early  control. 

(e)  Renewing  meadows  and  pastures  by  discing,  re- 
seeding,  and  manuring. 

5.  Birds  and  their  economic  value. 

6.  Special  home  projects  for  the  summer. 


EIGHTH-GRADE  AGRICULTURE 

(Alternate  and  combine  with  grade  seven.) 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 
Autumn  months 

I.  Reports  of  pupils'  experiences  in  raising  or  handling 

any  live-stock  of  the  farm. 
H.  The  live-stock  industry. 

1.  Importance  of  farm  animals  to  man. 

2.  Numbers  and  value  of  live-stock. 

8.  Place  of  live-stock  in  systems  of  farming. 
4.  Pure-breds,  grades,  and  scrubs;  improvement  of 
inferior  stock. 


208  APPENDIX 

HI.  Swine. 

1.  Types  of  swine,  characteristics  of  each. 

2.  Breeds  of  swine,  characteristics  of  each. 

3.  Selecting  breeding  hogs. 

4.  Feeding  swine. 

5.  Care  and  management  of  brood  sow  and  litter. 

6.  Kinds  of  hog  houses. 

7.  Common  hog  diseases. 
IV.  Beef  cattle. 

1.  Types  of  cattle,  characteristics,  and  uses  of  each. 

2.  Cuts  in  the  beef  carcass,  location,  value  and  use. 

8.  Feeding  beef  cattle;  balanced  rations  for  various 
purposes. 

4.  Care  and  management  of  breeding  herds  and 
calves. 

5.  Cattle  markets. 

Winter  months 

V.  Sheltering  farm  animals;  methods  and  importance  of. 

Winter  storage  of  stock  feed. 
VI.  Sheep. 

1.  Types  of  sheep,  their  chief  characteristics. 

2.  Study  of  the  mutton  type  and  the  special  market 
requirements. 

3.  Breeds  of  sheep;  characteristics  of  five  or  six 
breeds. 

4.  Characteristics  of  a  good  fleece. 

5.  Feeding  sheep;  fattening  lambs. 

6.  Care  and  management  of  the  breeding  flock  and 
lambs. 

VIE.  Dairy  cattle. 

1.  Dairy  type  contrasted  with  beef  type. 

2.  Breeds  of  dairy  cattle;  characteristics  of  each. 

3.  Differences  in  production  in  individual  cows. 
Some  record  cows. 


APPENDIX  209 

4.  Feeding  dairy  cattle;  good  dairy  rations;  feeding 
standards. 

5.  Care  and  management  of  dairy  cows. 

6.  Farm  practices  in  handling  milk. 

7.  Essentials  of  clean  milk  production. 

8.  Feeding  and  management  of  dairy  calves. 

9.  Milk  testing  and  record  keeping. 

Spring  months 

Horses. 

1.  Types  of  horses;  characteristics  and  uses  of  each. 

2.  Description  of  ideal  draft  horse. 

3.  Breeds  of  draft  horses;  characteristics  of  each. 

4.  Feeding  horses  at  work  and  when  idle;   brood 
mares,  and  colts. 

5.  Good  and  bad  horsemanship. 

6.  Essentials  in  horse  barn  construction. 

7.  Common  disorders  and  unsouncinesses  in  horses. 
IX.  Poultry. 

1.  Members  of  the  poultry  group. 

2.  Types  of  chickens;  their  characteristics. 

3.  Breeds  of  chickens;  their  characteristics. 

4.  Selecting  fowls  for  egg  production. 

5.  Feeding  poultry. 

6.  Poultry-houses,  construction,  interior  arrange- 
ment, and  equipment. 

7.  Raising  chicks,  natural  and  artificial  methods. 

8.  Marketing  poultry  and  eggs. 

9.  Diseases,  prevention,  and  treatment. 

X.  Interesting  facts  about  the  origin  and  development 

of  various  common  farm  animals. 
XI.  Methods  of  improving  farm  animals. 
XII.  Comparison  of  grain-farming  and  live-stock  fanning 
methods. 


210  APPENDIX 

NOTES 

In  connection  with  the  work  in  Agriculture  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades,  it  is  recommended  that  special  notebooks 
be  made,  illustrated  and  kept  by  each  student,  on  each  of  the 
larger  topics  studied.  Notebooks  on  corn,  wheat,  insects, 
orchard,  weeds,  garden,  swine,  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  poultry, 
etc.,  may  easily  and  profitably  be  made  to  correlate  with 
work  in  English  and  drawing.  These  notebooks  may  be  in 
the  form  of  booklets,  with  neat  cover  design,  illustrated  by 
crayons  or  water  colors.  Industrial  Booklets,  published  by 
Webb  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  are  excellent  helps 
in  this  connection. 

PRACTICAL  HOME  WORK 

There  is  little  time  for  laboratory  or  field  work  at  school 
in  connection  with  agriculture  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  especially  in  the  one-room  country  schools.  But  a 
method  referred  to  in  Chapter  III  is  entirely  feasible,  and 
more  detailed  suggestions  are  here  submitted. 

From  the  following  list  of  farm  operations  which  a  boy 
of  these  grades  can  do,  the  teacher  may  select  any  two  per 
week,  related  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  subject-matter 
being  studied  at  school,  and  assign  these  home  duties  to  the 
pupil.  The  parents  may  sign  a  form  blank  each  week  vouch- 
ing for  the  work  done  by  the  pupil.  From  five  to  ten  hours 
per  week  should  be  required. 

HOME  WORK  ON  THE  FARM  TOR  SCHOOL  CREDIT  m 
AGRICULTURE 

1.  Mowing  weeds  about  the  farm  (hours  equivalent  to  one 
hah*  working  day). 

2.  Ploughing  for  wheat   (hours  equal  to   one  working 
day). 

3.  Using  fanning  mill  to  clean  seed  wheat. 


APPENDIX  211 

4.  Sowing  wheat  (hours  equivalent  to  a  working  day). 

5.  Selecting  seed  corn. 

6.  Husking  corn  (hours  equivalent  to  one  day). 

7.  Storing  seed  corn. 

8.  Testing  seed  corn. 

9.  Cutting  corn  (hours  equal  to  one  half -day). 

10.  Helping  fill  a  silo. 

11.  Digging,  picking,  and  storing  potatoes  (one  half -day). 

12.  Picking,  packing,  and  storing  apples  (one  half-day). 

13.  Gathering  and  storing  nuts. 

14.  Cleaning  up  all  trash  and  junk  about  the  farm. 

15.  Currying  and  harnessing  a  team  of  horses  for  the  work 
of  one  week. 

16.  Feeding  and  watering  the  horses  for  a  week. 

17.  Cleaning,  oiling,  and  putting  away  farm  implements. 

18.  Hauling  and  spreading  manure  (one  half -day). 

19.  Spreading  limestone  or  rock-phosphate  (one  half-day). 

20.  Repairing  fences,  gates,  or  other  farm  equipment. 

21.  Making  bird-houses. 

22.  Assisting  in  concrete  construction. 

23.  Working  on  road  improvement. 

24.  Keeping  fuel  containers  in  the  house  filled,  ashes  and 
all  garbage  removed  (for  one  week). 

25.  Mending,  and  oiling  harness,  and  splicing  ropes. 

26.  Making  a  hotbed. 

27.  Sowing  clover  seed. 

28.  Treating  oats  for  smut. 

29.  Sowing  oats  (hours  equal  to  one  half -day).,  ? 

30.  Pruning  vines,  shrubs,  or  trees. 

31.  Grafting  fruit  trees. 

32.  Treating  potatoes  for  scab. 

33.  Planting  fall  or  spring  flower  bulbs. 

34.  Planting  potatoes. 

85.  Helping  in  spring  gardening  (one  half-day). 
36.  Hoeing  in  garden  about  shrubs  or  flower  beds  (one  half- 
day). 


212  APPENDIX 

37.  Setting  out  trees  or  shrubs . 
88.  Mowing  the  lawn. 

39.  Planting  corn  (hours  equal  to  one  day). 

40.  Transplanting  garden  vegetables. 

41.  Spraying,  or  otherwise  destroying  insect  pests  about  the 
farm. 

42.  Feeding  the  pigs  for  one  week. 

43.  Milking  the  cows  for  one  week. 

44.  Feeding  and  caring  for  cattle  for  one  week. 

45.  Feeding  and  caring  for  sheep  for  one  week. 

46.  Feeding  and  caring  for  poultry  for  one  week. 

47.  Making  hens'  nests,  or  other  equipment  for  the  poultry 
house. 

48.  Gathering  the  eggs  for  a  week. 

49.  Preserving  eggs  in  water  glass. 

50.  Caring  for  an  incubator. 

51.  Cleaning  out  stables,  mangers,  and  feed  boxes  at  the  • 
barn. 

52.  Helping  hi  butchering  on  the  farm. 

53.  Herding  farm  animals,  or  driving  them  to  and  from  pas- 
ture for  a  week. 

54.  Helping  to  "break  a  colt." 

55.  Keeping  all  watering  troughs  for  the  stock  cleaned  and 
filled  for  one  week. 

56.  Running  the  Babcock  test  for  one  week  and  keeping 
records. 

57.  Doing  any  other  farm  labor  that  needs  to  be  done) 
which  the  boy  can  do  or  help  to  do. 

The  value  of  all  this  work  will  be  in  the  gaining  of  a  back- 
ground of  farm  experience,  dignified  by  school  credit,  and  in 
the  practice  of  habits  of  thoroughness  and  alertness,  habits 
which  will  be  worth  as  much  to  boys  in  many  respects, 
in  other  kinds  of  business  they  may  go  into,  as  they  might 
gain  from  a  term  of  school  or  the  study  of  books. 


APPENDIX  213 

The  parent  or  guardian  should  certify  to  the  work  done, 
on  some  such  form  as  follows:  — 

Date 

School 

To  the  teacher:  — 

John  Smith  has  done  satisfactorily  the  two  following  pieces 
of  work  required  for  school  credit  in  agriculture  this  week:  — 


•  (Parent's  signature.) 

Outline  of  the  Plan  Suggested  on  Page  25  for 
Seventh-  and  Eighth-Grade  Agriculture 

THE  HOME-PROJECT  PLAN 

Basing  the  work  of  these  grades  on  the  home  project,  the 
class  should  decide  upon  one  or  possibly  two  projects  and 
each  member  of  the  class  should  do  the  work  outlined  in  a 
calendar  similar  to  the  one  given  below.  Class  recitations  and 
laboratory  exercises  should  be  based  upon  the  practical  work 
done  at  home.  Under  this  plan  very  little  of  the  time  of  the 
regular  school  hours  need  be  given  to  formal  classwork,  but 
the  school  becomes  the  guide  and  inspiration  for  the  home 
work.  During  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  several  projects 
may  be  completed  without  any  duplication  of  study  or  work, 
and  it  may  be  better  for  the  student  to  complete  a  thorough 
study  and  practice  of  a  few  agricultural  projects  than  to  skim 
over  the  general  field  of  agriculture  by  the  textbook  method 
of  school  work.  In  connection  with  the  project  plan,  the 
author's  A  Year  in  Agriculture 1  is  suggested  as  a  suitable 
book  for  general  study. 

The  following  project  outline  is  taken  from  the  Row, 
Peterson  Home  Project  Series  and  illustrates  the  method  of 
using  the  home  project  as  a  basis  for  elementary  agriculture. 

>  Bow,  Peterson  &  Co. 


214 


September 

1.  Organization  of  club.  The  class  in  agriculture,  under- 
taking to  base  its  year's  work  upon  the  home  project,  should 
be  organized  as  directed  by  the  club  plan.  Each  member  of 
the  class  should  become  a  member  of  the  club  and  plan  to  do 
all  the  work  outlined  for  the  project.  The  plan  should  meet 
the  approval  of  the  board  of  education  and  of  the  parents  of 
the  boys  and  girls  undertaking  the  project  and  have  the 
hearty  support  of  the  county  superintendent  of  schools  and 
of  the  teacher.  The  State  Club  Leader  at  the  State  College 
of  Agriculture  should  be  notified  of  the  organization  of  the 
club  so  that  he  can  send  enrollment  blanks  and  all  such  liter- 
ature and  publications  as  will  be  helpful  in  the  progress  of  the 
work. 

2.  Selecting  the  plot.  For  the  corn  growing  project  we  may 
well  begin  operations  in  September  for  the  next  season's  crop. 
The  first  thing  each  pupil  should  do  after  the  organization 
of  the  class  is  to  select  the  plot  upon  which  he  is  to  grow  his 
corn.  Not  less  than  an  acre  should  be  used  for  this  project. 

The  father  should  allow  the  boy  an  acre  of  good  well- 
drained,  fertile  land  upon  which  to  grow  his  corn. 

8.  The  notebook.  Each  pupil  should  be  provided  with  a 
good  permanent  notebook  in  which  he  may  keep  a  neat  and 
accurate  record  of  all  operations,  results,  and  accounts, 
month  by  month,  so  that  at  the  end  he  will  have  an  agricul- 
tural booklet  he  will  be  proud  to  exhibit.  It  would  be  well 
to  have  all  these  notebooks  uniform  in  style  and  size.  Upon 
the  durable  cover  may  be  pasted  some  such  words  as,  "Ag- 
ricultural Booklet";  "Com  is  King";  some  good  pictures 
clipped  from  papers;  or  even  the  photograph  and  name  of 
the  boy. 

THE  HOME-PROJECT  NOTEBOOK 

1.  Diary  of  the  home  project.  Answer  all  questions,  make 
all  records,  and  describe  all  operations  called  for  in  the 


APPENDIX 


215 


calendar  of  monthly  activities  under  the  proper  date 
of  this  diary.  When  the  operation  done  involves  an 
expense,  record  it,  giving  hours'  time  required  at  ten 
cents  an  hour  for  your  own  work  and  fifteen  cents  an 
hour  for  hired  labor.  Charge  ten  cents  an  hour  for 
horse  labor.  Record  cost  of  material  used.  When  the 
diary  activity  brings  in  a  return,  record  it  under  re- 
ceipts to  be  summarized  later.  When  the  diary  of  the 
month  is  finished  write  in  the  middle  of  the  page  the 
next  month  thus :  — 

SEPTEMBER 


Date 

Operations,  work  done,  etc. 

Hours 

Expense 

Receipts 

12  or  15  pages  ruled  in 

this  way 

2.  Summary  of  cost  of  the  acre  of  corn :  — 


Items  of  labor  and  material 

Man  Labor 

Horse 
Labor 
@10^ 
per  hour 

Cost 

@Wt 
per  hour 

@l5t 
per  pour 

1.  AH   preparation   of   ground 
for  planting  

2    Planting  the  acre  

3.  Cultivation  of  the  corn  
4    Work  in  gathering  

6.  Estimated  rent  of  the  land  .  . 
6    Cost  of  fertilizers  

7    Cost  of  manure  

8    Cost  of  seed  corn  

9    Cost  of  other  material  

10   Total  cost  

216  APPENDIX 

3.  Estimated  value  of  corn  from  the  acre :  — 


Bushels 

Value 

1.  Total  number  of  bushels  obtained  

2.  Number  of  bushels  of  seed  obtained  .... 
8.  Market  value  of  common  corn  

4.  Market  value  of  seed  corn  

B.  Value  of  all  corn  obtained  

6.  Total  profit  on  your  acre  

7.  Your  labor  income  

8.  Cost  per  bushel  of  producing  your  corn  . 

4«  Mapping  the  plot.    Make  a  map,  drawing  to  scale,  of 
your  proposed  acre  of  corn  ground.   Copy  this  neatly 
^  in  your  notebook.  Write  answers  to  the  following  points, 
(a)  Location  of  the  plot. 

(6)  Type  of  soil,  sandy,  clay,  loam,  upland,  lowland, 
etc. 

(c)  Cropping  and  treatment  of  the  plot  for  the  last 
three  years. 

(d)  Present  condition  as  to  plant  growth  and  fer- 
tility. 

(e)  Drainage. 

(f)  Estimated  value  of  the  acre  of  land. 

5.  Field  selection  of  seed.  Attention  may  well  be  given  this 
early  in  the  project  to  the  selection  of  the  seed  corn  for 
next  spring.  Send  to  the  various  seed  corn  breeders  of 
your  State  for  their  circulars;  also  to  the  International 
Harvester  Company  and  to  the  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture for  bulletins  on  seed  corn. 

Go  into  the  field  and  study  good  types  of  stalks  and 
ears  from  which  seed  corn  should  be  selected.  (Labora- 
tory exercises  on  this  point  may  precede  this  trip.) 
Become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  ideal  stalk  and 
ear  which  should  be  selected  when  the  time  for  husking 
the  seed  corn  comes. 


APPENDIX  217 

October 

1.  Storing  seed  corn.  Devices  for  storing  seed  corn  should 
be  planned  and  made  this  month.  Each  pupil  should 
make  definite  provision  for  storing  his  seed  corn  in  some 
of  the  various  types  of  racks  or  devices  used. 

£.  Selecting  and  storing  seed.  Before  freezing  weather  or 
severe  frosts,  the  seed  corn  to  be  used  in  this  project 
should  be  selected  in  the  field  and  brought  in  for  drying 
and  storing.  The  only  satisfactory  way  of  selecting 
seed  corn  is  in  the  field  where  one  can  take  into  account 
the  whole  plant.  The  ear  should  be  taken  from  a  leafy 
stalk  that  is  well  developed,  standing  at  proper  dis- 
tance from  other  stalks  and  grown  under  normal  con- 
ditions. The  ear  should  be  supported  about  midway 
up  the  stalk  on  a  short  shank  inclined  slightly  down- 
ward. Desirable  ear  characteristics  are  given  in  stand- 
ard score  cards.  Since  the  pupil  is  to  select  for  only  a 
small  planting  area,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
and  store  the  best  seed  corn  possible.  Determine  the 
number  of  ears  required  to  plant  an  acre  of  corn.  Select 
several  times  this  number  for  storing.  Dry  cellars, 
basements  or  attics,  if  free  from  mice  and  rats,  may  be 
used  for  storing  corn.  The  old  practice  of  hanging  seed 
corn  from  rafters  is  a  good  one  to  use  until  the  corn  is 
finally  stored  for  the  winter.  Corn  contains  considerable 
moisture,  the  germ  is  a  living  thing,  and  the  vitality 
of  the  corn  may  be  seriously  injured  if  it  is  allowed  to 
freeze.  Record  in  diary:  (1)  Amount  of  seed  selected; 
(2)  where  obtained;  (3)  variety  of  corn;  (4)  how  stored. 

3.  Soil  treatment.  Attention  should  be  given  this  fall  to  the 
proper  treatment  of  the  soil  of  the  plot  to  be  planted. 
If  a  clover  crop  has  been  growing  to  be  ploughed  un- 
der, well  and  good.  In  any  case,  an  application  of  five  or 
six  tons  of  barnyard  manure  should  be  applied  to  the 
acre.  Most  soils  are  deficient  in  phosphorus,  and  there 


218  APPENDIX 

would  likely  be  beneficial  results  from  applying  about 
two  tons  per  acre  of  finely  ground  raw  rock  phosphate. 
The  whole  —  crops  residue,  clover,  manure,  and  rock 
phosphate  —  should  be  ploughed  down  this  fall  to  de- 
compose and  become  available  for  plant  food  for  the 
corn  crop  of  next  season. 

We  must  be  sure  that  the  soil  is  not  sour.  Get  some 
blue  litmus  paper  at  the  drug  store.  Make  up  a  moist 
ball  of  the  soil  and  insert  the  litmus  paper.  If  after 
five  or  ten  minutes  the  litmus  paper  turns  pink  or  red 
we  have  evidence  that  the  soil  is  acid.  Now  limestone 
corrects  acidity,  and  if  the  soil  of  the  proposed  plot 
is  acid  from  two  to  three  tons  of  ground  limestone 
should  be  applied  to  the  land  after  the  fall  ploughing. 

The  pupil  should  keep  a  record  in  his  notebook  of  all 
that  is  done  by  way  of  soil  treatment  on  his  plot:  — 

1.  What  crop  residue  is  present? 

2.  How  much  manure  applied?  When? 

8.  How  much  phosphorus  applied?  When? 

4.  When  the  plot  was  ploughed: — Depth.    Was  the 
ground  disked? 

5.  How  did  you  test  for  acidity?  Was  your  soil  sour? 

6.  How  much  limestone  applied?  When? 

7.  Record  hours  of  horse  and  man  labor  necessary. 

November 

1.  Unfinished  work.   Any  of  the  unfinished  work  of  select- 
ing and  storing  seed  corn  or  of  the  preparation  of  the 
ground  as  described  for  October  may  be  finished  in 
November.  The  seed  corn  should  be  stored  in  the  racks 
prepared,  out  of  reach  of  rats  and  mice,  in  a  dry  room 
where  dampness  or  freezing  will  not  occur. 

2.  Practice  in  judging  corn.  Full  directions  for  scoring 
and  judging  corn  are  given  by  State  colleges  and  text- 
books adapted  to  local  needs. 

3.  Preparation  of  club  exhibits.  Details  for  corn  exhibits 


APPENDIX  219 

are  given  in  various  State  publications.  The  class 
should  arrange  a  corn  exhibit  in  the  schoolroom,  even 
though  the  corn  for  this  first  year  of  the  project  was 
not  grown  by  the  pupils.  For  the  second  year  of  the 
project  pupils  should  exhibit  their  own  corn. 

December  and  January 

1.  School-room  studies.  No  practical  work  directly  relating 
to  the  project  is  necessary  these  months.  Class  recita- 
tion work  based  on  a  study  of  the  market  prices  and 
causes  of  variation;  systems  of  permanent  soil  fertility; 
crop  rotation;  and  the  place  of  corn  in  systems  of  grain 
and  live-stock  farming.   Consult  daily  market  quota- 
tions and  record  prices  of  corn  in  a  table  prepared  in 
the  notebook. 

Class  recitations  and  study  on  the  subject-matter  re- 
lating to  this  project.  Consult  farm  papers,  bulletins, 
and  reference  texts  for  class  reports  on  corn-growing 
and  related  problems,  such  as  soil,  weeds,  insects,  feed- 
ing values,  and  uses  of  corn. 

2.  Laboratory  exercises  relating  to  the  above  studies. 

February 

1.  The  plot  work  again.  We  may  now  begin  to  turn  our 
attention  more  specifically  to  the  plot  and  the  next 
steps  in  the  production  of  the  acre  of  corn  which  has 
been  planned  since  last  September. 

2.  The  signboard.    One  of  the  things  each  member  of  the 
class  or  club  should  do  is  to  make  and  letter  a  signboard 
to  be  placed  at  the  plot  upon  which  the  project  is  to 
be  done.  This  should  be  12x8  inches  planed  on  one 
side.    The  signboard  should  bear  the  name  of  the  local 
or  county  club  preceded  by  the  word  "Member"; 
as,— 


220  APPENDIX 

Member 

Lincoln  County 

Corn  Club 

The  lettering  may  be  done  by  means  of  a  stencil  cut 
from  cardboard.  The  letters  may  be  cut  from  adver- 
tisements or  made  by  some  member  of  the  class.  They 
are  then  laid  on  the  cardboard,  their  outline  drawn 
with  a  pencil,  and  the  letters  cut  out. 
5.  Testing  and  grading  seed  corn.  A  rectangular  box  seed 
com  tester  and  as  many  other  kinds  of  testers  as  pos- 
sibly can  be  secured  should  be  available  for  this  work. 
Send  to  your  State  College  of  Agriculture  for  circulars 
of  instruction  on  making  the  seed  corn  test.  Test  for 
germination  at  least  fifty  high-scoring  ears  of  corn 
selected  and  stored  last  fall  in  order  to  discover  the 
twelve  or  fifteen  having  the  most  vigorous  vitality  to 
be  used  for  planting  your  acre.  Record  the  results  of 
your  testing  in  the  notebook:  (1)  When  tested;  (2)  how 
tested;  (3)  per  cent  of  good  germination. 

March  and  April 

1.  Preparation  of  seed  bed.  If  the  ground  has  not  been 
ploughed  last  fall,  the  first  preparation  in  the  spring 
would  be  the  breaking  of  the  ground.  Disking  and 
deep  ploughing  would  be  in  order.  If  the  ground  has 
been  broken  last  fall,  the  plot  should  be  disked  and 
thoroughly  harrowed  in  the  spring.  A  firm,  deeply 
ploughed,  sub-surface  with  a  well-pulverized  surface 
soil  is  the  ideal  seed-bed  preparation.  Record  all 
operations  in  the  notebook  records. 

(1)  Was  ground  ploughed  in  the  fall  or  spring?  Why? 

(2)  How  was  your  seed  bed  prepared? 

(3)  Record  hours  of  man  and  horse  labor  used. 


APPENDIX 


221 


.  Implements.    Make  a  study  of  the  ploughs,  disks,  and 
harrows  used  in  these  operations:  — 


Implements  used 

The  Make 

Degree  of  Success 

Plough  

Disk  

Harrow  

May 

1.  Corn-planting.  Corn  may  be  planted  from  the  first  to 
the  middle  of  May  or  even  later.  From  one  and  one 
half  to  three  inches  is  the  depth  to  plant  corn,  depend- 
ing on  the  character  of  the  soil. 

If  the  acre  used  in  this  project  is  a  part  of  a  larger 
field,  the  corn  may  be  planted  by  the  planter  along  with 
the  rest  of  the  field.  If  the  acre  is  apart  from  other 
plantings  the  seed  may  be  drilled  or  even  dropped  by 
hand. 
$.  Record  in  the  notebook  diary  as  follows:  — 

(a)  When  planted. 

(6)  Method  used. 

(c)  Distance  apart  of  rows  and  corn  in  rows. 

(d)  Amount  of  seed  used. 

(e)  Record  hours  of  man  and  horse  labor  used. 

S.  Planters.  Study  various  corn-planters  and  drills.  Write 
a  paragraph  in  your  notebook  on  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  each  method  of  planting. 

June  and  July 

1.  Cultivation.  Weeds  are  kept  out  and  the  shallow  sofl 
mulch  maintained  in  proper  cultivation.  Early  rolling 
and  harrowing  before  or  soon  after  the  com  comes  up 


222  APPENDIX 

is  a  good  practice  facilitating  the  early  control  of  th* 
weeds. 

The  soil  should  be  cultivated  as  often  as  is  necessary 
to  maintain  a  loose,  shallow  soil  mulch,  and  keep  down 
the  weeds.  Never  allow  the  surface  to  become  baked 
and  hard.  It  should  be  cultivated  as  soon  after  a  rain 
as  it  is  dry  enough  to  work.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
cultivate  too  deep.  If  the  roots  of  corn  are  injured,  the 
yield  is  reduced. 

2.  Record  in  the  notebook  diary  as  follows:  — 

(a)  Was  your  stand  good,  medium  or  poor? 
(6)  What  and  when  was  your  first  cultivation? 

(c)  Was  cultivation  deep  or  shallow? 

(d)  What  implement  was  used? 

(e)  How  many  times  did  you  cultivate? 

(f)  Record  hours  of  man  and  horse  labor  used. 

3.  Insects.  Observe  and  note  the  insect  injuring  the  corn. 

(a)  Name  of  insect. 

(6)  Nature  of  the  injury. 

4.  Weeds.  List  the  weeds  that  were  troublesome. 

6.  Other  damages.  Was  your  corn  damaged  by  any  other 
causes? 

6.  Read  and  study  bulletins,  books,  and  farm  papers  re- 
lating to  corn  production. 

July  and  August 

1.  Cultivation.  Continue  cultivation  to  keep  down  weeds 
and  maintain  the  soil  mulch. 

2.  Field  trips.    If  the  teacher  or  club  leader  is  helping, 
during  the  sunimer  frequent  trips  to  the  plot  should  be 
made  by  the  pupil  and  leader  to  observe  and  discuss  — 

(a)  Pollination  and  fertilization. 
(6)  Insect  and  fungous  injury. 

(c)  Corn  stand. 

(d)  Probable  causes  of  success  or  failure  in  good  corn 
growth. 


APPENDIX  223 

Diary  records  of  these  observations  should  be  made. 
The  teacher  or  club  leader  should  assist  the  pupil  in 
completing  in  a  full,  neat,  and  satisfactory  way  all  the 
records  and  accounts  connected  with  this  project. 

3.  Picnics.  A  club  picnic  should  be  the  closing  feature  of 
the  year's  work. 

4-  Concluding  work.  The  concluding  work  of  the  Booklet 
should  be  the  pupil's  story  of  "How  I  Grew  My  Acre 
of  Corn." 


IV.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LABORATORY 
EQUIPMENT 

MUCH  of  the  laboratory  equipment  needed  for  a  study  of 
biology,  chemistry,  and  physics  is  suitable  for  work  in  agri- 
culture. It  is  supposed  that  those  schools  which  offer  agri- 
culture will  be  fairly  well  supplied  with  such  apparatus  as 
suitable  laboratory  desks,  tables,  compound  microscope, 
hand  lenses,  etc.;  hence,  only  that  material  somewhat  pecu- 
liar to  the  study  of  agriculture  will  be  mentioned  here. 

2  Ibs.  each  of  the  following  cereals:  (1)  Wheat  (fife);  (2) 
wheat  (Blue  Stem);  (3)  wheat  (Velvet  Chaff);  (4)  wheat 
(Macaroni);  (5)  oats;  (6)  spring  rye;  (7)  speltz;  (8)  barley; 

(9)  corn $1  80 

Twelve  4-oz.  samples  of  wheat  products  (may  be  obtained 
free  of  charge,  f.o.b.  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  by  applying  to 
the  Pillsbury  Flour  Company). 

A  small  sheaf  of  each  of  the  above  grains  in  the  straw. 
(Secure  locally.)  One  10-ear  sample  of  several  varieties  of 
corn.  (Collect  locally.)  (Samples  of  starch,  glucose,  corn 
oil,  and  other  products  made  from  corn  may  be  obtained, 
free  of  charge,  f.o.b.  Chicago,  Illinois,  by  applying  to  the 
American  Manufacturers'  Association  of  Products  from 
Corn,  1236  First  National  Bank  Building,  Chicago.) 

Score  cards  for  judging  corn,  in  pads 18 

4  oz.  each  of  the  following  grasses  and  legumes:  (1)  German 
millet;  (2)  Hungarian  millet;  (3)  red  clover;  (4)  alfalfa; 
(5)  crimson  clover;  (6)  alsike;  (7)  Canada  field  peas; 
(8)  Kentucky  bluegrass;  (9)  red  top;  (10)  timothy;  (11) 

brome  grass 2  50 

12  cans  with  compression  cap  lids,  6  each,  one  pint  and  one 

quart 1  50 

One  set  of  Collection  of  Injurious  Weeds.    (Obtainable 
from  the  Biological  Department,  Agricultural  College,  Far- 
go, North  Dakota,  at  a  cost  of  $1.00,  or  from  Purdue  Uni- 
versity, Lafayette,  Indiana,  or  other  agricultural  colleges.) 
One  case  of  Collection  of  Plant  Diseases.    (Obtainable 


APPENDIX  225 

from  the  Biological  Department  of  the  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, Fargo,  North  Dakota,  at  a  cost  of  about  $1.50.) 

10  plates,  tin,  7-inch $  50 

1  quire  blotting  paper,  19  x  24  inches 60 

5  yards  of  muslin.   (Secure  locally.) 

12  shallow  boxes  for  seed  germination,  and  root  cuttings, 
about  16  x  12  x  3  in.  of  galvanized  iron,  $1.00  each  (or  secure 
wooden  boxes  locally). 

1  Ib.  formaldehyde,  40  per  cent 35 

1  oz.  iodine 40 

2  oz.  acid  phosphate 15 

2  oz.  magnesium  phosphate 18 

1  Ib.  nitric  acid 80 

1  Ib.  hydrochloric  acid 25 

1  Ib.  sulphuric  acid 25 

2  oz.  sodium  nitrate 10 

2  oz.  potassium  sulphate 10 

2  oz.  ferric  chloride 15 

1  vial  blue  litmus  paper 08 

1  vial  red  litmus  paper 08 

One  collection  of  economic  seeds.  (May  be  secured  from 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.C.  Vials  for  these  may  be  obtained  from  Mackell  Broth- 
ers, 9th  St.,  N.E.,  Washington,  D.C.,  at  a  cost  of  $1.50.) 

1  grain  container,  metal,  2  gallons 80 

100  seedlings  for  grafting  (obtain  from  local  nursery). 
100  Catalpa  Speciosa  for  nursery  row  (secure  from  local  nur- 
sery). 

1  Ib.  grafting  wax 30 

Score  cards  for  fruit,  pad  of  50 18 

1  pruning  saw  and  knife 1  00 

1  grafting  knife,  one  blade 30 

1  pruning  shears,  9-inch 60 

6  Ibs.  copper  sulphate  (for  Bordeaux  Mixture) 50 

6  Ibs.  calcium  oxide,  quicklime  (for  Bordeaux  Mixture) 50 

1  Ib.  Paris  green 25 

1  Ib.  arsenate  of  lead  (disparene  or  gypsene) 25 

1  Ib.  white  arsenic 12 

1  Ib.  arsenate  of  soda 85 

1  Ib.  fish  oil  (whale  oil)  soap 15 

1  Ib.  hellebore  (white) 25 

1  qt.  kerosene  emulsion *0 

i  Ib.  London  purple £5 

6  Ibs.  tobacco  sterna 25 


226  APPENDIX 

1  lb.  Bordeaux  Mixture $  25 

1  lb.  pyrethrum  (Persian  insect  powder) 25 

1  bucket  sprayer,  hand  size 4  50-10  00 

1  Babcock  milk  and  cream  tester,  complete 5  00-10  00 

1  milk  sheet 15 

1  poultry  coop  (made  to  order). 

1  cream  separator  75  Ibs.  or  35  qts.  per  hour 17  00-35  00 

Blank  score  cards  for  judging  on  light  horses,  draft  horses, 
beef  cattle,  dairy  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  market  cream  (18c. 

per  pad  of  50  of  any  one  kind)    1  26 

1  bu.  each  of  sand,  loam,  and  clay  soils  (secure  locally). 

2  dessicators,  6-inch 2  10 

2  dessicator  plates  for  above 2  00 

12  crucibles,  porcelain 1  80 

2  crucible  tongs,  steel,  double  bend,  9-inch 40 

12  test  tubes,  8  x  1-inch 40 

2  graduates,  cylindrical,  100  cc 1  00 

2  supports,  ring  stands  with  3  rings 1  10 

2  triangles,  iron  wire  covered  with  pipe  stems 10 

2  mortars,  porcelain  with  pestles,  2f-inch 60 

1  rolling  pin 15 

1  Harvard  agate  bearing  balance 6  00 

1  weights,  brass  in  block,  500  grams  to  1  gram 1  60 

1  analytical  balance  in  case,  capacity  100  grams.    Sensibility 

1  mg.  Duty  free 15  00 

1  weights,  brass  in  box,  100  grams  to  1  mg 3  50 

1  sieve,  brass,  5-inch  diameter,  set  of  3,  sizes  2  mm.,  1  mm., 
and  ^  mm.,  with  pan  bottom 3  90 

10  soil  tubes,  water-holding  capacity,  2  inches  in  diameter, 

10  inches  long,  perforated  bottom.    Made  of  brass 10  00 

(Or  10  soil  tubes,  same  as  above,  but  of  galvanized  iron, 
$5.00.) 

2  mulch  cylinders,  19-inch,  of  galvanized  iron 4  00 

2  pans,  metal,  14  x  18  x  2-inches  high 2  00 

12  flower  pots,  earthenware,  5  inches 45 

12  jars,  for  pot  culture,  '2  gals.  (20  cents  each) 2  16 

1  soil  augur 2  70 

1  drainage  apparatus  or  water  table,  of  copper 4  00 

1  alcohol  lamp,  4-oz 23 

1  Bunsen  burner  and  2j  feet  of  3-16-inch  rubber  tubing. 40 

Total  (minimum) $109  29 


APPENDIX  227 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  HIGH-SCHOOL  LABORATORY 
IN  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Heavy  tables,  built  solid  from  floor,  with  individual 
drawers  at  right-hand  side,  open  directly  in  front  of  a 
revolving  stool  with  back.    Size  3£  by  2  feet  for  each 
student.     Tables  all  built  together  down  center  of 
room,  so  that  students  face  each  other  across  table. 
The  whole  table  structure  might  be  35  by  4  feet,  seat- 
ing 20  students  with  individual  places.  Sinks  and  water 
at  ends  of  the  table. 

2.  Case  built  in  one  wall,  9  feet  long,  1  foot  deep,  and 
7  feet  high,  the  lower  3  feet  projecting  2  feet  forming 
a  table.    Glass  doors  and  shelves  for  the  upper  4  feet, 
solid  doors,  closing  storage  places,  the  lower  4  feet  of 
the  case. 

8.  Demonstration  lecture  table  7  by  3  feet,  drawers  on  each 
side  of  an  open  center.  Gas  and  electric  connection, 
water  and  end  sink. 

4.  General  sink  at  side  of  the  room. 

5.  Leaf  shelves  at  the  windows,  —  shelves  to  be  used  for 
window  boxes,  pot  cultures,  etc. 

6.  Case  for  classifying  agricultural  bulletins,  circulars, 
books,  etc.   Case  6  feet  wide,  1  foot  deep,  and  4  feet 
high,  above  a  table  built  below,  projecting  2  feet,  form- 
ing a  reading  or  reference  table.  One  half  the  case  cut 
into  filing  places,  similar  to  the  shelves  holding  maga- 
zines in  a  library;  the  other  to  be  used  as  bookshelves. 

7.  Molding-board  about  the  walls,  where  space  permits, 
upon  which  charts  may  be  hung. 


V.  THE  SMITH-HUGHES  BILL  AND  VOCA- 
TIONAL AGRICULTURE  IN  SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS 

THE  Smith-Hughes  Bill,  providing  Federal  grants  to  the 
respective  States  of  the  Union  for  the  promotion  of  vocational 
education,  was  passed  by  the  Sixty-fourth  Congress,  signed 
by  President  Wilson  on  February  23,  1917,  and  became 
operative  as  a  law  on  July  1,  1917. 

There  is  through  this  measure  projected  a  great  Nation- 
al system  of  vocational  education,  extending  downward 
through  the  secondary  schools,  with  Federal  support  similar 
to  that  given  to  the  Land-Grant  Colleges  by  the  Morrill 
Act,  signed  by  Abraham  Lincoln,  in  1862. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  SMITH-HUGHES  LAW,  REL-  ' 
ATIVE  TO  THE  TRAINING  OF  AGRICULTURAL 
WORKERS 

An  Act  to  provide  for  the  promotion  of  vocational  edu- 
cation; to  provide  for  cooperation  with  the  States  in  the  pro- 
motion of  such  education  in  agriculture; ...  to  provide  for 
cooperation  with  the  States  in  the  preparation  of  teachers 
of  vocational  subjects;  and  to  appropriate  money  and  regu- 
late its  expenditure. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled, 
That  there  is  hereby  annually  appropriated,  out  of  any 
money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  the  sums 
provided  in  Sections  2  and  4  of  this  Act,  to  be  paid  to  the 
respective  States  for  the  purpose  of  cooperating  with  the 
States  in  paying  the  salaries  of  teachers,  supervisors,  and 
directors  of  agricultural  subjects  . . .  and  in  the  preparation 


APPENDIX  229 

of  teachers  of  agricultural  subjects. . . .  Sums  shall  be  ex- 
pended as  hereinafter  provided. 

Sec.  2.  That  for  the  purpose  of  cooperating  with  the 
States  in  paying  the  salaries  of  teachers,  supervisors,  or 
directors  of  agricultural  subjects  there  is  hereby  appropri- 
ated for  the  use  of  the  States,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this 
Act,  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1918,  the  sum  of 
$500,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1919,  the  sum 
of  $750,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1920,  the  sum 
of  $1,000,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1921,  the 
sum  of  $1,250,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  CO,  1922, 
the  sum  of  $1,500,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1923,  the  sum  of  $1,750,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1924,  the  sum  of  $2,000,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1925,  the  sum  of  $2,500,000;  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1926,  and  annually  thereafter  the  sum 
of  $3,000,000.  Said  sums  shall  be  allotted  to  the  States  in 
the  proportion  which  their  rural  population  bears  to  the 
total  rural  population  of  the  United  States;  not  including 
outlying  possessions,  according  to  the  last  preceding  United 

States  census. 

i 

Sec.  4.  That  for  the  purpose  of  cooperating  with  the 
States  in  preparing  teachers,  supervisors,  and  directors  of 
agricultural  subjects  and  teachers  of  trade  and  industrial 
and  home  economics  subjects  there  is  hereby  appropriated 
for  the  use  of  the  States  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 

1918,  the  sum  of  $500,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 

1919,  the  sum  of  $700,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 

1920,  the  sum  of  $900,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
SO,  1921,  and  annually  thereafter,  the  sum  of  $1,000,000. 
Said  sums  shall  be  allotted  to  the  States  in  the  proportion 
which  their  population  bears  to  the  total  population  of  the 
United  States,  not  including  outlying  possessions,  according 
to  the  last  preceding  United  States  census. 

Sec.  5.  That  in  order  to  secure  the  benefits  of  the  ap- 


«30  APPENDIX 

propriations  provided  for  in  Sections  2  and  4  of  this  Act, 
any  State  shall,  through  the  legislative  authority  thereof, 
accept  the  provisions  of  this  Act  and  designate  or  create  a 
State  board,  consisting  of  not  less  than  three  members,  and 
having  all  necessary  power  to  cooperate,  as  herein  provided, 
with  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  in  the 
administration  of  the  provisions  of  this  Act.  The  State 
Board  of  Education,  or  other  board  having  charge  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  public  education  in  the  State,  or  any  State 
board  having  charge  of  the  administration  of  any  kind  of 
vocational  education  in  the  State  may,  if  the  State  so  elect, 
be  designated  as  the  State  board,  for  the  purposes  of  this 
Act. 

Any  State  may  accept  the  benefits  of  any  one  or  more  of 
the  respective  funds  herein  appropriated,  and  it  may  defer 
the  acceptance  of  the  benefits  of  any  one  or  more  of  such 
funds,  and  shall  be  required  to  meet  only  the  conditions 
relative  to  the  fund  or  funds  the  benefits  of  which  it  has 
accepted,  Provided,  that  after  June  30,  1920,  no  State  shall 
receive  any  appropriation  for  salaries  of  teachers,  super- 
visors, or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects  until  it  shall  have 
taken  advantage  of  at  least  the  minimum  amount  appropri- 
ated for  the  training  of  teachers,  supervisors,  or  directors 
of  agricultural  subjects,  as  provided  for  in  this  Act. 

Sec.  6.  That  a  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 
is  hereby  created,  to  consist  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  three  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  to  be  appointed  by  the  President, 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  One  of 
said  three  citizens  shall  be  a  representative  of  the  manufac- 
turing and  commercial  interests,  one  a  representative  of  the 
agricultural  interests,  and  one  a  representative  of  labor. 
The  board  shall  elect  annually  one  of  its  members  as  chair- 


APPENDIX  231 

man.  In  the  first  instance,  one  of  the  citizen  members  shall 
be  appointed  for  one  year,  one  for  two  years,  and  one  for 
three  years,  and  thereafter  for  three  years  each.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  board  other  than  the  members  of  the  Cabinet 
and  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  shall 
receive  a  salary  of  $5000  per  annum. 

The  board  shall  have  power  to  cooperate  with  State  boards 
in  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  Act.  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  to  make, 
or  cause  to  have  made  studies,  investigations,  and  reports, 
with  particular  reference  to  their  use  in  aiding  the  States 
in  the  establishment  of  vocational  schools  and  classes  and 
in  giving  instruction  in  agriculture.  .  .  .  Such  studies,  inves- 
tigations, and  reports  shall  include  agriculture  and  agricul- 
tural processes  and  requirements  upon  agricultural  workers; 
. . .  and  problems  of  administration  of  vocational  schools  and 
of  courses  of  study  and  instruction  in  vocational  subjects. 

The  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  shall  have 
power  to  employ  such  assistants  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry 
out  the  provisions  of  this  Act. 

Sec.  8.  That  in  order  to  secure  the  benefits  of  the  ap- 
propriation for  any  purpose  specified  in  this  Act,  the  State 
board  shall  prepare  plans,  showing  the  kinds  of  Vocational 
Education  for  which  it  is  proposed  that  the  appropriation 
shall  be  used;  the  kinds  of  schools  and  equipment;  courses 
of  study;  methods  of  instruction;  qualifications  of  teachers; 
and,  in  the  case  of  agricultural  subjects,  the  qualifications  of 
supervisors  or  directors;  plans  for  the  training  of  teachers, 
and,  in  the  case  of  agricultural  subjects,  plans  for  the  super- 
vision of  agricultural  education,  as  provided  for  in  Sec- 
tion 10.  Such  plans  shall  be  submitted  by  the  State  board 
to  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  and  if  the 
Federal  board  finds  the  same  to  be  in  conformity  with  the  pro- 
visions and  purposes  of  this  Act,  the  same  shall  be  approved. 
The  State  board  shall  make  an  annual  report  to  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education,  on  or  before  September 


232  APPENDIX 

first  of  each  year,  on  the  work  done  in  the  State  and  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  money  under  the  provisions  of 
this  Act. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  appropriation  for  the  salaries  of  teachers, 
supervisors,  or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects  .  .  .  shall 
be  devoted  exclusively  to  the  payment  of  salaries  of  such 
teachers,  supervisors,  or  directors  having  the  minimum 
qualifications  set  up  for  the  State  by  the  State  board,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Educa- 
tion. The  cost  of  instruction  supplementary  to  the  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture,  provided  for  in  this  Act,  necessary  to 
build  a  well-rounded  course  of  training,  shall  be  borne  by  the 
State  and  local  communities,  and  no  part  of  the  cost  thereof 
shall  be  borne  out  of  the  appropriations  herein  made.  The 
moneys  expended  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  in 
cooperation  with  the  States,  for  the  salaries  of  teachers, 
supervisors,  or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects,  .  .  .  shall 
be  conditioned  that  for  each  dollar  of  Federal  money  ex- 
pended for  such  salaries  the  State  or  local  community,  or 
both,  shall  expend  an  equal  amount  for  such  salaries;  and 
that  appropriations  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  vocational 
subjects,  as  herein  provided,  shall  be  conditioned  that  such 
money  be  expended  for  maintenance  of  such  training  and 
that  for  each  dollar  of  Federal  money  so  expended  for 
maintenance,  the  State  or  local  community,  or  both,  shall 
expend  an  equal  amount  for  the  maintenance  of  such 
training. 

Sec.  10.  That  any  State  may  use  the  appropriation  for 
agricultural  purposes,  or  any  part  thereof  allotted  to  it, 
under  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  for  the  salaries  of  teachers, 
supervisors,  or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects,  either  for 
the  salaries  of  teachers  of  such  subjects  in  schools  or  classes, 
or  for  the  salaries  of  supervisors  or  directors  of  such  sub- 
jects under  a  plan  of  supervision  for  the  State  to  be  set  up  by 
the  State  board,  with  the  approval  of  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education.  That  in  order  to  receive  the  benefits 


APPENDIX  233 

of  such  appropriation  for  the  salaries  of  teachers,  supervisors, 
or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects  the  State  board  of  any 
State  shall  provide  in  its  plan  for  agricultural  education  that 
such  education  shall  be  that  which  is  under  public  super- 
vision or  control;  that  the  controlling  purpose  of  such  edu- 
cation shall  be  to  fit  for  useful  employment;  that  such  edu- 
cation shall  be  of  less  than  college  grade  and  be  designed  to 
meet  the  needs  of  persons  over  fourteen  years  of  age  who 
have  entered  upon  or  who  are  preparing  to  enter  upon  the 
work  of  the  farm  or  of  the  farm  home;  that  the  State  or 
local  community,  or  both,  (1)  shall  provide  the  necessary 
plant  and  equipment  determined  upon  by  the  State  board, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Edu- 
cation, as  the  minimum  requirement  for  such  education 
in  schools  and  classes  in  the  State;  (2)  that  the  amount 
expended  for  the  maintenance  of  such  education  in  any 
school  or  class  receiving  the  benefit  of  such  appropriation 
shall  be  not  less  annually  than  the  amount  fixed  by  the  State 
board,  with  the  approval  of  the  Federal  board  as  the  mini- 
mum for  such  schools  or  classes  in  the  State;  (3)  that  such 
schools  shall  provide  for  directed  or  supervised  practice  in 
agriculture,  either  on  a  farm  provided  for  by  the  school  or 
other  farm,  for  at  least  six  months  per  year;  (4)  that  the 
teachers,  supervisors,  or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects 
shall  have  at  least  the  minimum  qualifications  determined 
for  the  State  by  the  State  board,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

Sec.  12.  That  in  order  for  any  State  to  receive  the  bene- 
fits of  the  appropriation  in  this  Act  for  the  training  of 
teachers,  supervisors,  or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects, 
.  .  .  the  State  board  of  such  State  shall  provide  in  its  plan 
for  such  training  that  the  same  shall  be  carried  out  under 
the  supervision  of  the  State  board;  that  such  training  shall 
be  given  in  schools  or  classes  under  public  supervision  or  con- 
trol; that  such  training  shall  be  given  only  to  persons  who 
have  had  adequate  vocational  experience  or  contact  in  the 


234  APPENDIX 

line  of  work  for  which  they  are  preparing  themselves  as 
teachers,  supervisors,  or  directors,  or  who  are  acquiring  such 
experience  or  contact  as  a  part  of  their  training;  and  that  the 
State  board,  with  the  approval  of  the  Federal  board,  shall 
establish  minimum  requirements  for  such  experience  or 
contact  for  teachers,  supervisors,  or  directors  of  agricul- 
tural subjects,  and  for  teachers  of  trade,  industrial  and  home 
economics  subjects;  that  not  more  than  sixty  per  centum  nor 
less  than  twenty  per  centum  of  the  money  appropriated  under 
this  Act  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  vocational  subjects 
to  any  State  for  any  year  shall  be  expended  for  any  one  of 
the  following  purposes:  For  the  preparation  of  teachers, 
supervisors,  or  directors  of  agricultural  subjects  or  the  pre- 
paration of  teachers  of  trade  and  industrial  subjects,  or  the 
preparation  of  teachers  of  home  economics  subjects. 

Sec.  13.  That  in  order  to  secure  the  benefits  of  the  ap- 
propriations for  the  salaries  of  teachers,  supervisors,  or 
directors  of  agricultural  subjects, ...  or  for  the  training  of 
teachers  as  herein  provided,  any  State  shall,  through  the 
legislative  authority  thereof,  appoint  as  custodian  for  said 
appropriations  its  State  Treasurer,  who  shall  receive  and 
provide  for  the  proper  custody  and  disbursements  of  all 
money  paid  to  the  State  from  said  appropriations. 

Sec.  16.  That  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 
may  withhold  the  allotment  of  moneys  to  any  State  when- 
ever it  shall  be  determined  that  such  moneys  are  not  being 
expended  for  the  purposes  and  under  the  conditions  of  this 
Act. 

Sec.  17.  That ...  no  portion  of  any  moneys  appropriated 
under  this  Act  for  the  benefit  of  the  States  shall  be  applied, 
directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  purchase,  erection,  preserva- 
tion, or  repair  of  any  building  or  buildings  or  equipment,  or 
for  the  purchase  or  rental  of  lands,  or  for  the  support  of  any 
religious  or  privately  owned  or  conducted  school  or  college. 

Approved,  February  23,  1917. 


APPENDIX  235 

Some  of  the  outstanding  benefits  of  the  Smith-Hughes 
Vocational  Fund  will  be:  — 

(1)  The  supervision  of  agricultural,  industrial,  and  home 
economics  teaching  in  secondary  schools. 

(2)  The  training  of  teachers  for  these  vocational  subjects. 

(3)  The  opportunity  given  to  help  boys  and  girls  into  bread- 
winning  vocations,  as  well  as  to  a  liberal  education. 

Coming  as  this  Federal  aid  does  at  the  time  of  the  great 
world  war,  it  should  assist  very  materially  in  training  agri- 
culturists and  mechanics  to  support  the  men  on  the  firing 
line.  It  should  aid  also  to  no  small  extent  in  providing  help- 
ful vocational  training  to  those  who  return,  maimed  in  many 
ways  from  war  and  battle,  to  take  up  the  task,  under  great 
handicap,  of  earning  a  livelihood  for  themselves  and  their 
families. 

This  movement  is  a  great  new  advance  in  education.  The 
resources  of  all  the  Nation  are  pooled  for  this  large  enterprise. 
Great  tasks  and  responsibilities  are  being  placed  on  Federal, 
State,  and  local  boards  and  directors  in  the  organization  of 
the  work,  and  in  the  establishment  of  principles  and  meth- 
ods with  which  to  carry  it  forward.  One  great  danger  is  in- 
herent hi  the  whole  scheme.  Much  authority  and  power  is 
taken  away  from  those  local  communities  accepting  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law.  Matters  of  equipment,  courses  of  study, 
qualifications  of  teachers,  and  even  methods  of  teaching,  are 
largely  under  the  control  of  the  State  and  Federal  boards. 
Let  us  hope  that  the  broad  and  liberal  policy  of  the  present 
Federal  Director,  Dr.  Prosser,  who  stated  that  local  com- 
munities shall  be  given  the  largest  freedom  possible  in  the  ap- 
plication of  this  law  to  the  vocational  education  in  the  schools, 
will  prevail  throughout  the  country.  Another  danger  in 
connection  with  the  development  of  this  movement  is  the 
establishment  of  separate  vocational  schools.  Let  the  work 
be  done  under  the  supervision  of  existing  boards  and  super- 
intendents, and  in  departments  of  regularly  established 
schools.  To  go  outside  of  these  and  establish  separate  State 


236  APPENDIX 

or  local  boards  of  education  would  be  unnecessary  duplica- 
tion and  a  useless  expenditure  of  the  people's  money.  The 
same  kind  of  men  and  the  same  kind  of  teachers  would  likely 
be  found  on  these  separate  boards  and  in  separate  schools, 
and  nothing  is  to  be  gained  that  could  not  be  had,  with 
many  added  advantages,  by  establishing  these  vocational 
courses  in  schools  already  existing. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  —  AGRICULTURE 

PUBLISHERS 

1.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 

2.  Ginn  &  Company,  Chicago. 

3.  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 

4.  American  Book  Company,  New  York. 

5.  Bobbs-Merrill  Company,  Indianapolis. 

6.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 

7.  Small,  Maynard  &  Company,  New  York. 

8.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company,  New  York. 

9.  Webb  Publishing  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

10.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 

11.  Row,  Peterson  &  Company,  Chicago. 

12.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company,  New  York. 

13.  W.  A.  Henry,  Experiment  Station,  Madison,  Wis- 
consin. 

14.  Kenyon  Publishing  Company,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

15.  The  Torch  Press,  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 

16.  C.  M.  Parker,  Publisher,  Taylorville,  Illinois. 

17.  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York. 

18.  Sanders  Publishing  Company,  Chicago. 

19.  Chicago  University  Press,  Chicago. 

20.  F.  H.  King,  University  Avenue,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

21.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Philadelphia. 

22.  Y.M.C.A.  Press,  New  York. 

23.  Rand-McNally  &  Company,  New  York. 

SOME  GOOD  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  SECONDARY 
AGRICULTURE 

I.  GENERAL  AGRICULTURE  * 

Caldwell  and  Eikenberry,  General  Science (2)    $1 . 25 

Bailey,  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture (1)     20 . 00 

..    *  The  Dumber*  in  parentheses  refer  to  the  publishers  given  above. 


ii  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bailey,  Principles  of  Agriculture (1)  $1 . 25 

Burkett,  et  al.,  Agriculture  for  Beginners (2)  .75 

Warren,  Elements  of  Agriculture (1)  1.10 

Mann,  Beginnings  in  Agriculture (1)  1 . 10 

McLennan,  Manual  of  Practical  Farming (1)  1 .50 

Benson  and  Belts,  Agriculture (5)  1 . 25 

Waters,  Essentials  in  Agriculture (2)  1 . 25 

Lippincott,  Productive  Series (21)  1 .75 

Card,  Farm  Management (12)  2 . 00 

King,  The  Physics  of  Agriculture (17)  1 . 75 

Hunt,  How  to  Choose  a  Farm (1)  1 . 75 

Ogden,  Rural  Hygiene (1)  1 .50 

Belcher,  Clean  Milk (3)  1.00 

Wilkinson,  Practical  Agriculture (4)  1 . 00 

Wilson,  Agriculture  for  Young  Folks (9)  1 .00 

Nolan,  One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Agriculture (11)  .65 

Wood,  School  Agriculture (3)  .90 

Jackson  and  Daugherty,  Agriculture,  Through 

Laboratory  and  School  Garden (3)  1 . 00 

Cotton  and  Fisher,  Agriculture  for  Common 

Schools (6)  '  .80 

Nolan,  A  Year  in  Agriculture  with  Home  Projects  (11)  .  75 

Nolan  and  Greene.  Home  Project  Series (11)  .32 

IT.  SOIM  AND  AGRICTTLTUKAL  CHEMISTBT 

Vivian,  First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility (3)  1 . 00 

King,  The  Soil (1)  1.50 

Snyder,  Soils  and  Fertilizers (1)  1 . 25 

Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding (13)  2.25 

Jordan,  Feeding  of  Animals (1)  1 .50 

Elliot,  Practical  Farm  Drainage (10)  1 . 50 

Hopkins,  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture  2 . 00 

Hopkins,  Story  of  the  Soil (2)  1.50 

Elliff,  A  Unit  in  Agriculture (11)  .50 

Kyle  and  Ellis,  Fundamentals  of  Farming  and 
Farm  Life (6) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  iii 

Whitson  and  Walster,  Sails  and  Sail  Fertility. . .  (9)  $1 .25 

Lyon,  Sails  and  Fertilizers (1)  .75 

HI.  ANIMALS 

Sanderson,  Insects  of  Farm,  Orchard  and  Garden.  .(10)  2 . 00 

Plumb,  Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry (9)  1.50 

Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals. ...    (2)  2.00 

Harper,  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools (9)  1 . 25 

Davenport,  Domestic  Animals  and  Plants (2)  1 . 25 

Robinson,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Cul- 
ture   (3)  1.50 

Brigham,  Progressive  Poultry  Culture (15)  1 .50 

Craig,  Judging  Live-Stock (14)  1 .50 

Davenport,  Twelve  Studies  of  Farm  Animals.  . .  (16)  .35 

Harper,  Training  and  Breaking  of  Horses (1)  1 .50 

Eckels,  Dairy  Cows,  and  Milk  Production 1 . 10 

Wing,  Milk  and  its  Products (1)  1.50 

Eckels  and  Warren,  Dairy  Farming (1)  1 . 10 

Bull,  Principles  of  Feeding  Farm  Animals (1)  1 . 50 

IV.  PLANTS 

Hosier,  Farm  Crops  and  Soils (23)  1.50 

Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production (1)  1 . 25 

Hunt,  Cereals  in  America (3)  1 . 75 

Hunt,  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  of  America (3)  1.75 

Conn,  Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Moulds  in  Home ...   (2)  1 . 00 

Waugh,  The  American  Apple  Orchard (3)  1 .00 

Duggar,  Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants (2)  2 . 00 

Bailey,  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing (1)  1 .50 

Bailey,  Manual  of  Gardening (1)  2 . 00 

Corbett,  Garden  Farming (2)  1 .50 

Card,  Bush  Fruits (1)  1  50 

Maynard,  Landscape  Gardening (10)  1 .50 

Waugh,  The  Landscape  Beautiful (3)  2  00 

Weed,  Farm  Friends  and  Foes (8)  .90 

Gifford,  Practical  Forestry (17)  1.25 


iv  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gregory,  ChecJcing  the  Waste (5)  $1 . 00 

Price,  The  Land  We  Live  in (7)  1 .80 

Davis,  Productive  Plant  Husbandry (21)  1.75 

Roth,  First  Book  of  Forestry (2)  .80 

Wing,  Alfalfa  Farming (8)  2.00 

Wilson  and  Warburton,  Field  Crops (9)  1 . 25 

Davis,  Home  and  School  Gardening (21)  1.50 

V.  FARM  MECHANICS  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Warren,  Farm  Management (1)  1 . 25 

Roberts,  Farmers'  Business  Handbook (1)  1 . 25 

Roberts,  The  Farmstead (1)  1 .50 

Davidson  and  Chase,  Farm  Machinery  and  Farm 

Motors (3)  2.00 

Green,  Law  for  American  Farmer (1)  1 . 50 

VI.  FARM  LIFE  INTERESTS 

Butterfield,  Chapters  on  Rural  Progress (19)  1 .00 

Bailey,  Country  Life  Movement (1)  1 . 10 

Bailey,  Report  of  Country  Life  Committee (1)  .80 

McKeever,  Farm  Boys  and  Girls (1)  1 .50 

Jewett,  Good  Health (2)  .60 

Plunkett,  Rural  Life  Problems  in  America (1)  1 . 50 

Bailey,  The  State  and  the  Farm (1)  1 .25 

Fiske,  The  Challenge  of  the  Country (22)  .75 

Carney,  Country  Life  and  the  Country  School ...  (11)  1 . 25 
Hart,  Educational  Resources  of  Village  and  Rural 

Communities (1)  .75 

Carver,  Rural  Economics (2)  1 . 30 

Davenport,  Education  for  Efficiency (8)  1 . 00 


OUTLINE 

1.  SOME  REASONS  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Aims  for  individual  students 1 

2.  Social  aims  in  view  of  modern  demands 2 

3.  Conservation  of  natural  resources 3 

4.  Inefficiency  in  rural  vocations 3 

5.  Health  in  rural  life 4 

6.  A  greater  appreciation  of  art 5 

7.  Moral  growth 5 

8.  Rural  organization 6 

9.  Liberal  education 7 

10.  Rural  problems 0 

a.  The  problems  of  farm  improvement 10 

b.  The  problems  of  marketing  and  exchange 10 

c.  The  problems  of  community  life 10 

II.  NATURE-STUDY  PRECEDING  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Nature-study  principles 12 

a.  Thede6nition 13 

b.  Nature  study  differentiated  from  science 13 

c.  The  aims 13 

(1)  To  give  general  acquaintance  with  nature 13 

(2)  To  give  training  in  accurate  observation 13 

(3)  To  give  useful  knowledge 13 

d.  The  method  should  be  observational 14 

e.  The  materials  must  be  the  most  common 14 

/.  Nature-study  must  be  for  the  child 14 

2.  Nature-study  for  primary  grades,  grades  one  and  two 14 

3.  Nature-study  in  third  and  fourth  grades 10 

4.  Nature-study  in  the  fifth  grade 

5.  Nature-study  in  the  sixth  grade 19 


vi  OUTLINE 

111.  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE  AND  BOYS'  AND 
GIRLS'  CLUB  WORK 

1.  Some  suggestions  as  to  content  of  courses,  and  methods. . .  21 

2.  The  textbook  method 22 

8.  The  home-project  club  method 25 

IV.  HIGH-SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Some  curriculum  problems , 31 

2.  Junior  and  senior  high-school  agriculture 34 

8.  Agronomy  in  the  high-school 35 

a.  Lesson  plan  introducing  a  course 38 

6.  Course  in  agronomy 39 

4.  Animal  husbandry  in  the  high  school 46 

a.  Course  in  animal  husbandry 48 

6.  Lesson  plan 55 

5.  Horticulture  in  the  high  school 56 

a.  Course  in  general  horticulture 60 

6.  Special  elective  courses  in  agriculture 64 

a.  Soils 66 

b.  The  farm  physical  plant 71 

c.  Farm  management 78 

d.  Plant  and  animal  improvement 75 

e.  Poultry  husbandry 77 

/.  Dairy  husbandry 79 

g.  Vegetable  gardening 81 

7.  A  One-year  general  course 83 

8.  Anthology  of  agriculture 96 

V.  SOME  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES  IN 
TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

1.  A  fundamental  principle 99 

2.  The  science  of  agriculture  and  farm  practice 99 

8.  Some  principles  of  scientific  agriculture 101 

a.  Relating  to  permanent  soil  fertility 101 

6.  Concerning  injurious  insects  and  fungus  diseases ....  102 

c.  Controlling  plant  and  animal  breeding 102 


OUTLINE  vii 

4.  The  use  of  textbooks 103 

5.  The  lecture  method jo4 

6.  Reports  and  class  recitations  by  students 105 

7.  Use  of  illustrative  material 106 

8.  Laboratory  methods 107 

a.  Experiments 109 

b.  Verifications 110 

e.  Demonstrations 110 

d.  Practicums Ill 

9.  Home  projects  in  secondary-school  agriculture 119 

a.  Suggestions  for  the  control  of  home  projects 128 

(1)  Supervision  must  be  provided 128 

(2)  The  project  should  develop  from  agricultural 
study 128 

(8)  Credit  for  the  home  project  should  be  supple- 
mentary    129 

(4)  Organize  home-project  students  into  clubs 129 

(5)  Project  work  should  lead  to  profitable  produc- 
tion   129 

(6)  Secure  the  cooperation  of  the  parents 130 

(7)  Provide  resources  for  students  lacking  them. . .  130 

(8)  Practical  preparation  necessary  for  teachers. . .  130 
6.  List  of  home  projects  suggested 131 

10.  Use  of  reference  materials 141 

a.  System  of  filing 142 

11.  Agricultural  extension  in  the  high  school 146 

a.  The  objects  of  high-school  extension 148 

6.  Forms  of  extension  activities 150 

c.  Four  effective  methods  of  approach 151 

12.  Use  of  land  in  teaching  agriculture  in  secondary  schools. . .    158 

VI.  THE  TEACHER  OF  AGRICULTURE 

1.  The  most  important  factor  in  education  is  the  teacher. . . .  162 

a.  Three  inseparable  conditions 163 

(1)  Strong  personality 103 

(2)  High  standards  of  qualification 103 

(3)  A  respectable  salary 163 


via  OUTLINE 

APPENDIX 

I.  Suggestions  for  a  farm,  home,  and  community  survey  . .  167 
11.  Suggested  course  in  nature  study  —  6rst  six  grades 179 

III.  Suggested  course  in  elements  of  agriculture  —  seventh 
and  eighth  grades 204 

IV.  Suggestions  for  laboratory  equipment 224 

V.  Suggestions  for  agricultural  laboratory 227 

VI.  The  Smith-Hughes  Law  and  Vocational  Agriculture  in 
secondary  schools 228 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  General  agriculture 265 

11.  Soils  and  agricultural  chemistry 266 

III.  Animals 267 

IV.  Plants 267 

V.  Farm  mechanics  and  management 268 

VI.  Farm  life  interests. . .  .268 


INDEX 


Advisory  committee,  agricultural, 
153. 

Agricultural  extension  work,  in 
the  high  school,  146-58;  four 
methods  of  approach  to,  151- 
53;  kinds  of,  154,  156,  157; 
what  it  can  accomplish,  155; 
certain  phases  of,  studied  by 
Professor  Hummel,  156,  157; 
funds  for,  156. 

Agriculture,  conclusions  from 
teaching  of,  in  public  schools, 
v;  one  of  the  major  vocations 
and  basic  industries,  v;  should 
have  vocational  aim  in  public 
schools,  vi;  some  reasons  for 
teaching,  vii-ix,  1-11;  general 
and  vocational,  1,  2;  as  indus- 
try, business,  and  life,  2,  3; 
scientific,  makes  for  conserva- 
tion, 3;  will  give  greater  effi- 
ciency to  rural  vocational  in- 
terests, 4;  will  improve  rural 
health,  4,  5;  conduces  to  great- 
er appreciation  of  art,  5;  rela- 
tion of,  to  moral  growth,  5,  6; 
teaching  of,  leads  to  rural  or- 
ganization, 6,  7;  a  subject  of 
liberal  and  technical  education, 
7,  8;  the  teacher  of,  8,  9;  self- 
injection  and  se'.f  elimination 
in  study  of,  9;  teaching  of,  will 
help  in  solving  rural  problems, 
9-11;  nature-study  preceding, 
12-20;  elementary,  and  boys' 
and  girls'  club  work,  21-30; 
beginning  of  vocational  study 
of,  21,  22;  high-school,  31- 
98;  curriculum  problems  con- 
nected with  study  of,  in  high- 
school,  31-34;  lesson  plan  in- 


troducing a  course  in  elemen- 
tary, 38,  39;  special  elective 
courses  in,  for  one  half  unit 
credit  for  junior  or  senior 
year,  64-96;  one-year  high- 
school  general  course  in,  83-96; 
general,  textbooks,  96;  anthol- 
ogy of,  96-98;  what  should  re- 
sult from  a  course  of  instruction 
in,  99;  the  science  of,  and  farm 
practice,  99-101;  some  prin- 
ciples of  scientific,  101-03;  use 
of  textbooks  in  teaching  of, 

103,  104;  the  lecture  method, 

104,  105;  reports  and  recita- 
tions, 104-06;  use  of  illustra- 
tive material,  106,  107;  labora- 
tory methods,  107-14;  teach- 
ing farm  craft,  114-19;  home 
projects  in  secondary  school, 
119-21;  the  project  as  a  basis 
for    methods    of    instruction, 
121-31;  supervised  farm  prac- 
tice under  the  Smith-Hughes 
Law,  132-41;  use  of  reference 
materials,    141-46;    classifica- 
tion of,  142-46;  use  of  land  in 
teaching,  158-61;  importance 
of  properly  trained  teachers  in, 
162-66;  qualifications  for  teach- 
ers in,  163,  164;  imagination  as 
a  qualification  of  the  teacher 
in,  165,  166;  suggested  course 
in  elements  of,  20t-23;  high- 
school  laboratory  in,   sugges- 
tions for,  227;  vocational,  in 
secondary    schools,    and    the 
Smith-Hughes    Bill,     228-63; 
bibliography,  265-68. 

Agronomy,  33,  35-37;  course  in, 
39-46. 


INDEX 


Aims,  for  individual  students,  1, 
2;  social,  in  view  of  modern 
demands,  2. 

Allen,  H.  B.,  extracts  of  letter  of, 
to  parents,  125-27. 

Animal  and  plant  improvement, 
course  in,  75-77. 

Animal  breeding,  102. 

Animal  husbandry,  22,  23,  33;  in 
the  high  school,  46-48;  course 
in,  48-56,  207-09. 

Animals,  books  on,  267. 

Anthology  of  Agriculture,  96-98. 

Art,  a  greater  appreciation  of, 
results  from  scientific  agri- 
culture, 5. 

Barrows,  Mr.,  problems  of  home- 
project  plan  according  to,  127. 

Benson,  O.  H.,  quoted,  26. 

Bibliography,  265-68. 

Blackboard,  use  of,  107. 

Books,  on  agriculture,  47,  48,  59; 
for  farmers  and  students  of 
agriculture,  141;  bibliography, 
265-68.  See  Textbooks. 

Boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  25-30, 
129,  154. 

Breeding,  plant  and  animal,  102. 

Bulletins,  47,  59,  141,  142. 

Card-indexes,  142. 

Charters,  Dr.  W.  W.,  on  project 
and  problem,  121. 

Charts,  use  of,  107. 

Chemistry,  agricultural,  books 
on,  266. 

Clippings,  142. 

Club  work,  25-30,  129,  152-54. 

Community  census,  171-78. 

Community  extension  service, 
48,  59. 

Community  life,  problems  of,  10, 
11. 

Conservation  of  natural  re- 
sources, scientific  agriculture 
makes  for,  8. 

Contests,  114. 

Cora  project  calendar,  214-23. 


Coulter,  Dr.,  quoted,  9. 

Course,  for  junior  high-school  ag- 
riculture, 34,  35;  in  elementary 
agriculture  for  high  school,  38, 
39;  in  agronomy,  39-46;  in  ani- 
mal husbandry,  48-56;  in  gen- 
eral horticulture,  60-64;  in 
soils  and  crop  production,  66- 
70;  in  farm  physical  plant,  71- 
73;  in  farm  management,  73- 
75;  in  plant  and  animal  im- 
provement, 75-77;  in  poultry 
husbandry,  77-79;  in  dairy 
husbandry,  79-81;  in  vege- 
table gardening  81,  82;  one- 
year  high-school  general,  in 
agriculture,  83-96;  in  nature- 
study,  179-203;  in  elements  of 
agriculture,  204-23. 

Crop  production,  course  in,  66-70. 

Curriculum  problems,  31-34. 

Dadisman,  S.  H.,  64,  65. 

Dairy  husbandry,  course  in, 
79-81. 

Davenport,  Eugene,  Education 
for  Efficiency  quoted,  21;  In- 
troduction to  Agriculture,  213. 

Demonstrations,  110,  111. 

Diseases,  plant,  102. 

Education,  technical  and  liberal, 
7,  8;  the  teacher  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in,  162-66. 

Efficiency  in  rural  vocational  in- 
terests, given  by  scientific 
agriculture,  4. 

Equipment,  for  animal  husban- 
dry work,  47,  48;  for  work  in 
horticulture,  59;  laboratory, 
suggestions  for,  224-27. 

Exchange  and  marketing,  prob- 
lems of,  10. 

Experiments,  109,  110. 

Extension  work,  agricultural,  in 
the  high  school,  146-58;  gov- 
erning principles  in,  148,  149; 
forms  of,  150,  151.  See  Agri- 
cultural extension  work. 


INDEX 


XI 


Farm  and  home  census,  167-71. 

Farm  craft,  teaching,  114^-19. 

Farm,  home,  and  community  sur- 
vey, suggestions  for,  167-78. 

Farm  improvement,  the  prob- 
lems of,  10. 

Farm  life  interests,  books  on, 
268. 

Farm  management,  64, 65;  course 
in,  73-75;  books  on,  268. 

Farm  mechanics,  65;  suggestive 
points  for  the  supervised  farm 
practice  in,  140, 141;  books  on, 
268. 

Farm  physical  plant,  course  in, 
71-73. 

Farm  practice,  99-101;  super- 
vised, under  the  Smith-Hughes 
Law,  132-41. 

Farmers'  clubs,  152,  153. 

Farming,  lands  of,  132,  133. 

Farmstead,  the,  33. 

Federal  aid  for  vocational  agri- 
culture. See  Smith-Hughes 
Law. 

Fertility,  soil,  101,  102. 

Field  work,  58,  59,  113. 

Filing,  system  of,  142-46. 

General  horticulture,  33.  See 
Horticulture. 

Grades,  one  and  two,  nature- 
study  in,  14-16;  three  and  four, 
nature-study  in,  16-18;  five 
and  six,  nature-study  in,  18- 
20;  first  six,  suggested  courses 
in  nature-study  for,  179-203; 
seventh  and  eighth,  suggested 
course  in  elements  of  agricul- 
ture, 204-23. 

Grain  farming,  suggestive  points 
for  the  supervised  farm  prac- 
tice in  systems  of,  133-36. 

Greene,  J.  H.,  26. 

Greenhouses,  59. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  96,  97. 
Health  in  rural  life,  4,  5. 
High  school,  agronomy  in,  35-37, 


39-46;  animal  husbandry  in, 
46-56;  horticulture  in,  56-64; 
special  elective  courses  for 
junior  or  senior  year,  64-82; 
one-year  general  course  for,  83- 
96;  agriculture,  house  projects 
in,  119-21;  agricultural  exten- 
sion in,  146-58;  broadening  of, 
147;  objects  of  extension  in, 
148;  forms  of  extension  in,  150, 
151. 

High-school  agriculture,  31-98; 
aim  of,  31;  amount  of  time  to 
be  given  to,  32;  how  fitted  into 
a  unified  science  course,  33; 
organization  and  presentation 
of,  33,  34;  junior  and  senior, 
34,  35. 

High- school  laboratory  in  agri- 
culture, suggestions  for,  227. 

Home-project  work,  24;  club 
method,  25-30,  129;  in  secon- 
dary-school agriculture,  119- 
21;  requisites  of,  123,  124;  ex- 
amples of,  124;  need  of  par- 
ents' interest  in,  125-27;  prob- 
lems in  connection  with,  127; 
suggestions  for  the  control  of, 
128-31;  expensive,  128;  the 
crediting  of,  129;  a  method  of 
approach  to  extensive  service, 
152;  outline  of  plan  for  seventh- 
and  eighth-grade  agriculture, 
213-23. 

Home  work,  114,  210-13. 

Horticulture,  in  the  high  school, 
33,  56-60;  course  in  general, 
60-64. 

Hummel,  Professor  W.  G.,  his 
study  of  high-school  agricul- 
tural extension  work,  155-57. 

Illinois,  farm  craft  teaching  in, 
115-19. 

Illinois  Board  for  Vocational 
Education,  excerpt  from,  on  su- 
pervision of  farm  work,  132-41. 

Illustrative  material,  use  of,  106, 
107. 


xu 


INDEX 


Imagination  as  qualification  of 
teacher,  165,  166. 

Improvement  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals, 33;  course  in,  75-77. 

Individual  students,  aims  for, 
1,2. 

Industrial  Booklets,  210. 

Inefficiency  in  rural  vocations, 
3,4. 

Insects,  principles  and  facts  con- 
cerning life-histories  of,  102. 

Journals,    agricultural,    48,    59, 

141. 
Junior  and    senior    high-school 

agriculture,  34,  35. 

Laboratory  equipment,  sugges- 
tions for,  224-27. 

Laboratory  exercises,  58,  106. 

Laboratory  methods,  107-14. 

Land,  use  of,  in  teaching  agri- 
culture in  secondary  schools, 
158-61. 

Landscape  gardening,  5. 

Lane,  C.  H.,  on  requisites  of 
home  project,  123. 

Leake,  A.  H.,  Means  and  Meth- 
ods of  Agricultural  Education 
quoted,  26. 

Lecture  method  in  teaching  agri- 
culture, 47,  104,  105. 

Lectures,  use  of,  in  community 
extension  service,  59. 

Lesson  plans,  introducing  course 
in  elementary  agriculture,  38, 
39;  in  animal  husbandry,  55, 
56;  in  nature-study,  181,  182, 
185,  186,  188,  189,  192,  193, 
197-99,  202,  203. 

Library,  agricultural,  47,  48,  59; 
school,  141,  142.  See  Books. 

Live-stock  farming,  suggestive 
points  for  the  supervised  farm 
practice  in  systems  of,  136-40. 

Maps,  use  of,  107. 
Marketing  and  exchange,  prob- 
lems of,  10. 


Mass.,    home-project    plan    of 

agriculture  in,  120,  121. 
Methods  of  teaching  elementary 

agriculture,  21-30. 
Moral   growth,    its   relation    to 

agriculture,  5,  6. 
Museums,  agricultural,  use  of, 

107. 

Natural  resources,  conservation 
of,  3. 

Nature-study,  preceding  agricul- 
ture, 12-20;  principles,  12-14; 
definition  of,  13;  differentiated 
from  technical  science,  13; 
aims  of,  13;  method  of,  14; 
materials  of,  14;  for  the  child, 
14;  in  grades  one  and  two,  14^ 
16;  in  third  and  fourth  grades, 
16-18;  in  fifth  and  sixth  grades, 
18-20;  suggested  course  in, 
179-203. 

Notebooks,  210;  home  projects, 
214-23. 

Organization,  rural,  and  agricul- 
ture, 6,  7;  of  subject-matter  of 
high-school  course,  33. 

Personality  of  teacher,  163,  164. 

Pictures,  use  of,  107. 

Plant  and  animal  improvement, 
course  in,  75-77. 

Plant  breeding,  102. 

Plant  industry,  22,  23,  204-07. 
See  Agronomy  and  Horti- 
culture; also  titles  on  pp.  64, 
65. 

Plants,  books  on,  267,  268. 

Poultry  husbandry,  course  in, 
77-79. 

Practicums,  111-14. 

Problem  and  project,  121,  122. 

Project,  the,  as  a  basis  for  meth- 
ods of  instruction,  121-31;  de- 
fined, 121;  chief  educational 
function  of,  121;  chief  values 
of,  122,  123;  home,  requisites 
of,  123,  124;  examples  of,  124; 


INDEX 


need  of  parents'  interest  in, 
125-27. 

Projects,  home,  in  secondary- 
school  agriculture,  119-21; 
problems  in  connection  with, 
127;  suggestions  for  the  con- 
trol of,  128-31;  the  crediting 
of,  129;  list  of.  131. 

Recitations,  104-06. 

Reference     materials,     use     of, 

141-46. 

Reports,  104-06. 
Rural  life,  health  in,  4,  5. 
Rural  organization,  results  from 

teaching  of  agriculture,  6,  7. 
Rural  problems,  9-11. 
Rural  vocations,  inefficiency  in, 

3,4. 

Salary  of  teachers,  163,  164. 

School  farms,  158-61. 

Secondary-school  agriculture, 
home  projects  in,  119-21;  and 
Smith-Hughes  Bill,  228-63. 

Smith-Hughes  Law,  supervised 
farm  practice  under  the,  132- 
41;  and  vocational  agriculture 
in  secondary  schools,  228-63; 
extracts  from,  228-32;  some  of 
the  benefits  of,  235,  236;  dan- 
gers in,  235;  conditions  govern- 
ing federal  aid  for  vocational 
agriculture  in  Texas  under, 
236-42;  application  for  fed- 
eral aid  in  vocational  agricul- 
ture under,  243-64. 

Snedden,  David,  The  Problem  of 
Vocational  Education  quoted, 
VI,  28. 


Social  aims  in  view  of  modern 

demands,  2. 

Soil  fertility,  facts  of,  101,  102. 
Soils,  course  in,  66-70;  books  on, 

266. 

Stereopticons,  use  of,  107. 
Student  labor,  160,  161. 
Supervision  of  farm  work,  132- 

41. 

Teachers,  to  supervise  home-pro- 
ject work,  lack  of,  130;  of  agri- 
culture in  high  schools,  possi- 
bilities within  reach  of,  155; 
should  be  hired  for  twelve 
months,  156;  in  extension 
work,  difficulties  should  be  no 
impediment  to,  158;  the  most 
important  factor  in  education, 
162-66;  in  agriculture,  the 
training  of,  162,  163;  necessi- 
ties for  good,  163,  164. 

Textbook  method  of  teaching 
elementary  agriculture,  22-25, 
204-23. 

Textbooks,  on  animal  husbandry, 
47;  on  general  agriculture,  96; 
the  use  of,  103, 104.  See  Books. 

United  States  Boys'  Working 
Reserve,  114-17. 

Vegetable  gardening,  course  in, 
81,  82. 

Verifications,  110. 

Vincent,  President,  cited,  165. 

Vocational  agriculture,  in  the 
public  schools,  v,  vi,  31;  and 
general  agriculture,  1,  2;  begin- 
ning of  study  of,  21,  22. 


UNTVER.CTTY  of  C  *  T  TFORNfc* 


LJBI' 


